Hello! Welcome to the Journey to the West Research blog, a repository for research on the great Chinese classic Xiyou ji (西遊記, 1592 CE). The story follows a Buddhist monk and his fallen gods-turned-monster disciples on a quest to procure salvation-bestowing scriptures from the Buddha in India. The main characters include:
The naive Buddhist monk Tang Sanzang (唐三藏, “Tripitaka of the Tang Dynasty Clan”; a.k.a. the “Tang Monk,” Tangseng, 唐僧), a literary version of the historical monk Xuanzang (玄奘, 602-664 CE)
The rebellious monkey-spirit Sun Wukong (孫悟空, “Monkey Awakened to Emptiness“; a.k.a. “Handsome Monkey King,” Meihou wang, 美猴王; a.k.a. “Great Sage Equaling Heaven,” Qitian dasheng, 齊天大聖; a.k.a. “Monkey”)
The lecherous pig-spirit Zhu Wuneng/Bajie (豬悟能/八戒, “Pig Awakened to Power/of Eight Rules; a.k.a. “Pigsy”)
The quiet river-spirit Sha Wujing (沙悟净, “Sand Awakened to Purity”; a.k.a. “Sha Monk,” Shaseng, 沙僧; a.k.a. “Sandy”)
The oblivious serpent-turned-White Dragon Horse (Bai Longma, 白龍馬)
The three main disciples—Sun, Zhu, and Sha—work hard to protect the Tang Monk from all manner of fallen gods or escaped divine mounts-turned-monsters, cultivated animals-turned-spirits, and mischievous ghosts wanting to eat his divine flesh. Along the way, the pilgrims encounter or are aided by Buddho-Daoist deities, immortals, and sages. See this article for a full character list. Also, for those short on time, please consult this wonderful 100-chapter summary of the novel over at the Journey to the West Library blog.
Studying the characters, events, mythology, religion, and philosophy of Journey to the West has been one of the greatest pleasures of my life, but I have entered a new phase of research that focuses on Sun Wukong in a much, much broader sense. I recently started a new project centered around the Greco-Roman hero Heracles–Hercules. My hope is that studying a mythic figure from a different time and place will provide more insight into our favorite primate immortal as a hero of the world and not just China. And since my attention will be focused on that, I likely won’t post new, in-depth research as often as I use to. This doesn’t count upcoming guest posts or the backlog of articles that I have almost finished. Nor does it count new archives of important materials or the occasional update I will make to existing pieces.
In the meantime, I have organized a master list of all 200-plus blog posts, including all of the books, papers, and comics I’ve archived over the years. Each has been placed in categories to make finding a particular subject easier. I must note that some posts will repeat as they belong in more than one category. The resulting list has been pinned to the top of the website to greet new and seasoned readers.
From time to time I like to post a fun blog not directly related to (though sometimes informed by) my research. Regular articles will resume after this entry.
Last updated: 04-08-2026
Readers may remember that DEATH BATTLE! (episode 162) featured a fight between Sun Wukong from Journey to the West (Xiyou ji, 西遊記, 1592 CE, “JTTW” hereafter) and Heracles / Hercules from Greco-Roman myth (fig. 1). The episode begins with the demi-god trekking up a mountain in order to fulfill the 11th of his famous 12 labors: procuring the Golden Apples of the Hesperides (Salapata, 2021), but he instead finds Monkey holding the fruit—food meant for his master, Tripitaka. Heracles demands the apple at sword-point, but he quickly discerns that the produce he’s been given was created from a magic hair. This leads to a deadly confrontation.
As I explain in my analysis of the episode, I initially liked how the fight began because both characters are known for stealing fruit in their respective mythologies (see no. 12 in my article listing their parallels). But in hindsight, this didn’t make much sense for two reasons. First, the golden apples are located in a land much further west than India, the scripture-pilgrims’ final destination in JTTW. Monkey could have easily gone to a location closer to their resting spot. And second, having the heroes meet during their respective adventures creates a temporal paradox since both are active at different times—late-Greek bronze age (c. 3000–1000 BCE) vs the early-Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE). Therefore, in the end, the idea is very forced. But what would be a more natural way for the Son of Zeus and the Great Sage Equaling Heaven to come to blows?
This article proposes a more organic reason for conflict via a story idea based on elements from JTTW, Greek myth, Greco-Buddhist art, and Buddhist literature. But take note that the encounter is NOT meant to be a death battle. Remember that the rest of the journey still needs to take place.
My pitch is an offshoot of a previous story idea. It follows the historical Xuanzang (玄奘, 602–664 CE) (on whom Tripitaka is based) on his quest for sutras through Central Asia and India, including years-long periods of study. While the original novel sees Daoism practiced by Chinese-speaking people as far away as the Western Continent (i.e. India), this wouldn’t be the case in the real world. Therefore, changes would have to be made to the narrative, such as the appearance of foreign gods outside of the Middle Kingdom. But as I noted in the original article, it would be a lot easier to include the devas of Buddhism (e.g. Shakra, Brahma, Heavenly Kings, etc.) since the religion was practiced throughout the areas traveled by Xuanzang. This, however, wouldn’t exclude gods from other pantheons, like Heracles.
1.1. Heracles as Vajrapani in Greco-Buddhist Art
Now, I can already hear my readers asking, “How could Heracles possibly be associated with the gods of Buddhism?” Well, the first Greeks arrived in Central Asia and India during the reign of Darius the Great (550–486 BCE) and later Alexander the Great (356–323 BCE). And just like American Gods, these soldiers, merchants, artisans, and farmers brought their religion with them. The convergence of these two cultures eventually resulted in the demi-god appearing alongside Tathagata in the 1st to 3rd century CE Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara (modern day NW Pakistan to E and NE Afghanistan) (fig. 2). The Greek hero takes the place of the Buddha’s loyal protector, the yaksha-turned-dharma guardian Vajrapani (Sk: वज्रपाणि, lit: “Vajra [Thunderbolt] in hand”; Ch: Jingang shou pusa, 金剛手菩薩, lit: “Bodhisattva holding the vajra”). (I have to say that Heracles’ association with the thunderbolt is super fascinating given who his father is.) In fact, the common image of Vajrapani as a muscular, club-wielding deva in East Asia (fig. 3) is directly linked to his depiction as Heracles in Gandharan art!
I won’t go into further detail here since I’ve already taken the liberty of archiving papers on the subject in preparation for this article:
Fig. 2 – Detail of a stone carving of the Buddha preaching while Heracles-Vajrapani watches over him, Gandhara, 2nd or 3rd century CE, Schist (larger version). He wields a gada mace in his right hand and holds a bone-like vajra-club in the left. Adapted from an image found here. Copyright the Trustees of the British Museum. Fig. 3 – A Tang-era painting of Vajrapani, Dunhuang, Gansu Province, China, mid-9th to early-10th century CE, ink and colors on silk (larger version). Take note of his muscular physique and wispy beard. The vajra-club in his left hand is obscured by his leg. Image found here. Copyright the Trustees of the British Museum. See here for a Tang-era painting of Vajrapani with a visible club.
1.2. Historical Monkey King and Vajrapani Crossovers
Sun Wukong and Vajrapani have technically met before. For example, in the 13th century CE version of the JTTW story cycle, the Great Sage’s antecedent changes his magic staff into the dharma warrior while facing a white tiger spirit:
Monkey Pilgrim [Hou xingzhe, 猴行者] transformed his golden-ringed staff into a gigantic Yakşa whose head touched the sky and whose feet straddled the earth. In his hands he grasped a demon-subduing cudgel [jiangmochu, 降魔杵]. His body was blue as indigo, his hair red as cinnabar; from his mouth a fiery gleam shot forth over one thousand feet long” (based on Wivell, 1994, p. 1189). [1]
The titan eventually crushes her with his weapon (Wivell, 1994, p. 1189). The “demon-subduing cudgel” is another name for Vajrapani’s vajra-thunderbolt.
Also, the Monkey King interacts with Vajra warriors (Jingang, 金剛) related to Vajrapani numerous times in the standard 1592 CE JTTW. In chapter 52, his way is momentarily barred by the “Eight Great Vajras” (Ba da jingang, 八大金剛) when he seeks an unannounced audience with the Buddha (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 24). [2] In chapter 58, the eight warriors fail to stop Wukong and his doppelganger when they fight to the Western Paradise seeking Tathagata’s wisdom to distinguish one from the other (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 114). After the Bull Demon King is captured in chapter 61, the Great Sage gathers the “Four Great Vajras” (Si da jingang, 四大金剛) and a host of other gods to confront Princess Iron Fan (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 161). In chapter 77, the four warriors once again momentarily bar his way when he seeks an audience with the Buddha (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 4, pp. 27-28). In chapter 98, the four warriors welcome Tripitaka and his companions, including Monkey, upon their arrival to the Western Paradise (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 4, p. 347). Later in the same chapter, the Buddha charges the eight warriors with transporting the clerics on a cloud to hasten the completion of their mission and return to paradise (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 4, p. 357). But after being ordered to prematurely drop off the pilgrims, leading to Tripitaka’s 81st tribulation, the eight warriors reappear sometime later to complete the trip to China (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 4, p. 369). And finally, in chapter 100, the eight warriors spirit them back to the Western Paradise to receive their otherworldly reward (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 4, p. 380).
In addition, Sun Wukong and Vajrapani are associated with each other in Shaolin Monastery lore. The latter was historically worshiped as the progenitor of their famous staff method. A stele erected by Shaolin abbot Wenzai (文載) in 1517 CE shows that the deity’s vajra-club had been changed at some point to a Chinese staff (fig. 4) (Shahar, 2008, p. 84). Vajrapani’s yaksha-like Narayana (Naluoyan(tian), 那羅延(天)) form was eventually equated with one of the four staff-wielding “Kimnara Kings” (Jinnaluo wang, 緊那羅王) from the Lotus Sutra in 1575 CE. His name was thus changed from Narayana to Kimnara King (Shahar, 2008, p. 87). One version of the story about his creation of the staff method takes place during the Yuan Dynasty‘s Red Turban Rebellion (1351–1368 CE). Bandits lay siege to the monastery, but it is saved by a lowly kitchen worker wielding a long fire poker as a makeshift staff. He leaps into the oven and emerges as a monstrous giant tall enough to straddle both Mount Song and the imperial fort atop Mount Shaoshi, which are five miles (8.046 km) apart. The bandits flee when they behold this staff-wielding titan. The Shaolin monks later realize that the kitchen worker was none other than the Kimnara King in disguise (Shahar, 2008, pp. 87-88). Shahar (2008) suggests that mythical elements of the story were borrowed from the Monkey King’s adventures. He compares the worker’s transformation in the stove with Sun’s time in Laozi’s Eight Trigrams furnace (Bagua lu, 八卦爐), their use of the staff, and the fact that Monkey and his weapon can both grow to gigantic proportions (Shahar, 2008, p. 109). [3]
Therefore, given the above information, it’s not a stretch to have the two heroes meet in a fanfiction.
Fig. 4 – An ink rubbing of the 1517 CE Shaolin stele showing a titanic Vajrapani defending the monastery from rebels (larger version). From Shahar, 2008, p. 84.
2. The Main Story Idea
I’ve added in-text notes in this section to provide readers with extra context. This way, you won’t have to scroll to the endnotes at the bottom.
Buddhist tradition describes Tathagata visiting the devas to preach the dharma (Buswell & Lopez, 2014, p. 235). With the presence of Greeks in Central and South Asia, I imagine he would also visit the Olympian gods who had gained some influence in the region. (See the 03-28-26 update below for more info). These friendly interactions would lead Zeus to assign Heracles to guard the Enlightened One (fig. 5), thereby forming a link between the Greek and Buddhist pantheons (and explaining the aforementioned art). (See the 10-29-25 and 12-02-25 updates below for a detail from Greek myth that supports this idea.)
Here is where one of many changes to the standard 1592 CE JTTW story happens. In chapter six of the original, the bodhisattva Guanyin recommends that the demi-god Erlang battle the Monkey King after the latter had defeated many of heaven’s greatest warriors (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 178). In our tale, she instead endorses the demi-god-turned-deity Heracles-Vajrapani (“HV” hereafter). [A]
A) The Son of Zeus became a full-blown god upon his death. After being exposed to a tunic soaked with poisonous hydra blood, Heracles sought release from the immense pain by jumping into a funeral pyre. But the flaming structure was shortly thereafter struck by lightning, signaling his rise to godhood (Romero-Gonzalez, 2021, pp. 273-276). This, of course, takes place hundreds of years before he becomes the protector of the Buddha.
Fig. 5 – A lovely digital painting of Heracles traveling with the Buddha (larger version). By Jacob King (deviantart). Used with permission. Image found here.
(I don’t consider myself a competent story writer, so please look at the following events and dialogue as conceptual in nature. I’m sure a seasoned writer could do the narrative more justice.)
Similar to the standard narrative, the monkey-soldiers of Wukong’s army notify him that heaven has sent another challenger. He emerges from his cave fully armored (refer to section 2.2. here) to see HV for the first time. Like the original, this might be followed by a poem describing the enemy; in this case, a large, muscular, bearded warrior wearing a lion skin and wielding a flaming vajra-club. (See the 02-19-26 update below for a visual.)
[Insert insults from both sides, including the Son of Zeus calling Monkey a “young rogue,” which naturally pisses him off. [B] HV also describes his godly heritage, which is alien to Monkey since he’s not familiar with the Greek pantheon.]
B) The Great Sage has a habit of claiming to be older than the various gods, immortals, spirits, and humans he meets—whether it’s true or not in the first three cases (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 413, for example). This is exemplified by his self-given nickname “(Maternal/Paternal) Grandpa Sun” (Sun waigong, 孫外公; Sun Yeye, 孫爺爺). But within the story’s timeline, Heracles is indeed hundreds of years older. Writing around 430 BCE, the Greek historian Herodotus claimed that the Son of Zeus lived roughly 900 years before him, placing the demi-god’s life sometime around 1330 BCE. The Greek hero would, therefore, be active around 830 or more years prior to the birth of Wukong (c. 500 BCE).
The pair first take part in a battle of weapons, with Wukong wielding his magic staff and HV his vajra-club. The earth quakes, gods tremble, etc. HV’s powerful strikes push our hero back, causing his staff to painfully vibrate in his hands [C] and create a deafening ringing noise with each hit. Monkey would have a running internal monologue noting the great force of his opponent’s attacks. But despite this, the Great Sage continues driving forward, his weapon hardly leaving the area around HV’s head. [D] At one point, though, a glancing strike from the Greco-Buddhist hero redirects the staff, creating an opening. HV brings his vajra-club down hard on Monkey, but instead of dodging, the latter jerks his head upwards, butting away his opponent’s holy weapon with a loud, metallic bang. [E] The combined forces from the attack and defense might cause destruction to the surrounding area.
C) It may seem impossible for the staff to painfully vibrate in Wukong’s hands, but this indeed happens once in the novel. In JTTW chapter 20, he attempts to bludgeon a tiger-spirit, but when “the rod bounce[s] back up and his hands [a]re stung by the impact” (… 轉震得自己手疼), he learns it was just a big stone covered with the fiend’s sloughed off skin (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 403).
D) The phrase “hardly leaving the monster’s head” is respectively used in JTTW chapters 41 and 67 (here and here) to describe Wukong’s supreme mastery of the staff (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, p. 224; vol. 3, p. 249).
E) The feat of headbutting the weapon serves two purposes. First, it’s a response to this 2020 DEATH BATTLE! fanon wiki script that sees Hercules win by smashing the primate immortal’s head to a pulp with his club. (This attack carried over into the official episode, too.) The ending betrays the author’s extremely limited knowledge of JTTW. In the original, the Great Sage’s head is one of the hardest parts of his body, giving him the confidence to voluntarily take blows to the scalp from even magic, bladed weapons with no harm (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, pp. 314, 383-384, and 408; vol. 2, p. 128; vol. 3, pp. 125 and 373). And two, it highlights the correlation between the invulnerability of Monkey and the Nemean Lion, the first labor of Heracles (March, 2021). Regarding the ending of the fan script, one version of the original mythology sees the Son of Zeus break his olive club over the lion’s head because of how tough its hide is (March, 2021, p. 34).
The novel gives at least three reasons for the Great Sage’s invulnerability. After heaven fails to execute him with bladed weapons and fire and lightning in JTTW chapter 7, Laozi suggests that all of the immortal foodstuff previously consumed by our hero had been refined by his own samadhi fire (sanmei huo, 三昧火), a spiritual flame in the lower abdomen, thus giving him a “diamond body” (jingang zhi qu, 金鋼之軀) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 188). Wukong himself later attributes his adamantine nature to his time in the high god’s furnace. In JTTW chapter 34, for example, he claims to have developed a heart of gold, viscera of silver, a head of bronze, and a back of iron, etc. (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, p. 131). This is refuted in JTTW chapter 75 when he claims to have been born with a head of bronze and iron that was further refined by the furnace (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 374).
Stunned from the powerful blow, [F] Monkey stumbles around holding his head for a moment but raises his weapon in defense when he sees HV approaching. However, instead of attacking, the Greco-Buddhist warrior pauses combat by raising a hand in front of him. “What a skull!” he exclaims while clapping. “And no hint of blood! I reckon your hide is as tough as a monstrous beast I once fought. [G] Truly impressive! And your staff technique is masterful! Who trained you?”
F) This references how the Nemean Lion was blinded by pain after the blow (March, 2021, p. 34).
G) This reference is obvious.
“I have no teacher. [H] I alone trained my mind and body for three years.” [I]
H) This refers to Wukong’s promise to never reveal the Buddho-Daoist sage, Patriarch Subodhi, as his teacher under threat of karmic torture in the underworld (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 125).
I) This is the length of time that he spends as an indoor disciple of Subodhi (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 121).
“A prodigy!” exclaims HV. “But how good is your boxing and wrestling?”
“Ol’ Monkey can handle himself.”
“Let’s see if that’s true. How about we have a friendly sparring match, a test of heroic strength and skill? No weapons and no pesky magic tricks. Agreed?”
Wukong quickly agrees and inserts his shrunken staff into his ear before stripping off his armor from the waist up to match HV’s exposed muscles. HV somehow magically stores his holy vajra-club. The two then square up and launch forward, locking hands and pushing against the other, causing the ground beneath them to tremble and split.
“Extraordinary!” says HV. “How can such a small creature be so powerful?! [J] Were you born of the gods?
J) Many people often forget that Monkey’s normal form is less than 4-Chinese feet (121.92 cm) tall (see here).
“Oh, like the terrible stone titan and stone goddess! [K] No wonder you achieved this level of strength in such a short time. You have so much raw potential. Why cause trouble for such petty reasons?” [L]
It’s interesting to note that lithic births are at least common enough in world myth to have earned a category in Stith Thompson’s Motif-Index of Folk-Literature: “Birth from rock” (T544.1).
L) This refers to Wukong’s rebellion over being given the lowest-ranking position in the Daoist heaven.
[Insert Wukong’s reply. They continue to converse during the battle.]
(This might be a good place to introduce some comedy. HV keeps referencing gods and monsters from other pantheons, making Monkey more and more frustrated:
“What the hell is wrong with you?! I … DON’T … KNOW … THESE … PEOPLE!!! [said in a slow, patronizing voice])
The Great Sage’s internal monologue comments on HV’s diamond grip and the great pressure of his punches. But our hero’s keen eyes notice openings in HV’s defense, allowing him to land blow after blow. However, with each successful attack comes praises from HV. Stinging rib shot. “Good, good!” Cutting elbow strike to the face. “Excellent!” Crushing body slam. “Amazing!”
“Why do you keep lauding me? I’m winning!”
“That would certainly be the case … if we were equals.”
“What do you mean?!”
Smiling, HV explains, “I’ve been testing you! [M] You found all of the openings I offered you, even some that I didn’t intend to because I was apparently too focused on judging your technique. [N] You are a talent the likes of which I’ve never seen before! Thank Father Zeus [or Buddha]! The student I’ve been looking for has finally appeared! Forsake this frivolous rebellion and return with me to the Western Paradise. I promise with my tutelage, you will become one of the greatest warriors of any pantheon!”
M) Perhaps HV decides to test the Great Sage when he sees how well the small primate responds to his opening strikes.
N) It just occurred to me that since the Subodhi appearing in this more realistic version of the story is the historical figure he’s based on, Subhuti, one of the Buddha’s ten principal disciples, the patriarch had to have trained under someone during Tathagata’s lifetime. And considering that HV was the Enlightened One’s bodyguard, perhaps Subhuti learned a little from the Greco-Buddhist hero—apart from other deities, holy men, and warriors, including the Buddha, a member of the Kshatriya class. An interesting implication is that HV would recognize (his or an ally’s) techniques among Wukong’s armed and unarmed attacks or defenses, thereby alerting him that Monkey’s claim of having no master is false. Yet, he would still be supremely impressed that the Great Sage became such a powerful, competent fighter in just three short years.
Fun fact: according to Theocritus, Heracles learned boxing and wrestling from the grim-looking demi-god Harpalycus, son of Hermes (Pache, 2021, p. 10). Apollodorus instead claims his teacher was Autolycus (2.4.9), also a son of Hermes.
“I think you’re full of shit! Ol’ Monkey is whittling away at you, and you’re just trying to talk your way out of it.”
“Well, my offer stands,” HV replies calmly, “but now that I’ve had my fun, it’s time to finish this.”
“Finish what, you bastard?!” Wukong screams in anger. He then unleashes a tornado of powerful punches, kicks, and knee and elbow strikes. But this time they have no effect on the Son of Zeus because he’s no longer playing along.
I’m not quite sure what the next sequence of events would be since I have zero experience choreographing fight scenes, especially between celestial warriors. Perhaps HV displays his true power by running Monkey headfirst through the side of a mountain with an outstretched arm, similar to how the comic book character Omni-Man uses his son, Invincible, like a wedge to slice through an oncoming subway train [warning: gore]. This feat alone would surely cause the primate immortal to question how his opponent’s strength has seemingly increased exponentially. [O] (But upon reflection, this deed seems lacking considering that Wukong himself is shown capable of carrying two mountains while running with great speed. Hopefully someone can suggest a feat for HV that would amaze even the Great Sage.) (See the 02-20-26 update below for a new reason.)
O) This, of course, proves that HV was holding back. It’s important to note that in Buddhist literature, the original Vajrapani is considered the “physical manifestation of the … power … of all the Buddhas” (Buswell & Lopez, 2014, p. 955). Now imagine how much stronger HV would be than Monkey! Apart from his own godly heritage, I guess in my version of JTTW, HV would gain an unfathomable boost in power from serving as the protector and disciple of the Buddha, exposing him to the dharma for centuries—during Tathagata’s lifetime and afterlife following his parinirvana (figs. 6 & 7). This is similar to how the scorpion-demoness becomes so strong in JTTW chapter 55 (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 72). But HV would be well beyond even her.
I guess the Great Sage would hold off on using magic up to this point as a matter of pride, but maybe his hand is forced when faced with such oppressive strength. Like in the original, he might resort to his magic hairs, summoning hundreds of tiny clones in the hopes of overwhelming the Son of Zeus. [P] However, the Greco-Buddhist warrior quickly neutralizes these—possibly by clapping his hands together and creating a shockwave that blows them away [Q] and destroys the surrounding area—pressuring our hero to take other measures. Maybe Monkey frantically cycles through one trick after another but ultimately fails to best his opponent. (See the 10-26-25 update below for a detail from Greek myth that supports this idea). (It would be fascinating to see how HV deals with Wukong’s three-headed, six-armed war form—surely eliciting comparisons to Geryon.) [R]
To these breaches of their agreement, HV responds with something like, “Magic? You disappoint me.”
[Insert Monkey’s response.]
P) Monkey competes in hand-to-hand combat in JTTW chapters two and 51, and each time he resorts to hair clones when things get out of hand (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, pp. 128-129; vol. 3, pp. 12-13).
Q) The hair clones can indeed be blown away, as shown by the Yellow Wind Demon in JTTW chapter 21 (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, pp. 409-410).
R) Thank you to a beta reader of this article for reminding me about Geryon. He is sometimes described as having or depicted with three conjoined bodies, complete with three heads and six arms like Monkey (fig. 8) (Finglass, 2021).
Fig. 6 (Top) – A degraded stone carving depicting the parinirvana of the Buddha, Gandhara, 2nd to 3rd-century CE, Schist (larger version). HV is the first person from the left on the bottom row. He holds his vajra-club in one hand and upraises the other in lamentation. He has an exposed torso, showing off his muscles, in place of his signature lionskin. Housed in the British Museum. Adapted from an image found on Wikimedia Commons. Copyright Marie-Lan Nguyen. Fig. 7 (Bottom Left) – Detail of HV (larger version). Fig. 8 (Bottom Right) – Heracles vs Geryon, Attic black figure on Amphora vase, mid-6th century BCE (larger version). Housed in the Musée du Louvre, Paris. This is an upscaled version of an image found here. Copyright www.theoi.com.
Ideally, given the parallels between Wukong and the Nemean lion—both are fierce mythological animals, have invulnerable hides, can change shape, [S] and fight someone who is/was a demi-god (Erlang vs Heracles)—I would like to see HV maneuver to Monkey’s back and get him in a chokehold, thereby mimicking how the big cat was originally defeated. [T] But instead of killing the Great Sage, he only intends to choke him to unconsciousness. [U] (Again, see the 10-26-25 update below). And to make matters worse, as the primate immortal fades towards blacking out, he by chance witnesses his beloved monkey army being routed and captured by celestial forces, like the standard version (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 182). This causes him to lose heart and flee HV’s powerful arms by changing into an intangible ball of light or gust of wind. [V]
S) Matyszak (2015) states that the lion would sometimes take the form of kidnapped women (that it had presumably already eaten) in order to lure unsuspecting heroes into its cave (pp. 46-47). Dr. Matyszak tells me that “it’s not part of the core myth” but “later Roman and Byzantine authors do mention it” (personal communication, October 17, 2025).
T) I really like the ending of Theocritus’ description of the fight:
[After hitting him over the head with a club,] I threw my bow and stitched quiver to the ground, and before he could recover and turn on me again, I grabbed him by the scruff of his powerful neck. Gripping him firmly, I strangled him with my strong hands, tackling him from behind to stop him scratching me with his claws. Standing on his hind paws, I pressed them hard to the ground with my heels and controlled his flanks with my thighs, until I could lift him up lifeless in my arms and lay him out. And mighty Hades took his spirit (March, 2021, p. 34).
U) Someone might claim that it would be impossible to choke out Monkey since he’s a spiritual being, but it’s important to remember that the novel humanizes supernatural figures in order to make them more relatable. For instance, in JTTW chapter 65, Wukong claims that he will die from the lack of air inside of a sealed Buddhist treasure-weapon if he isn’t soon released (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 217). And he reiterates this near-death experience to Zhu after escaping a few pages later (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 224). Having read that, I think a blood choke would be more dignified and less dangerous method for subduing our hero.
V) Wukong escapes in the form of a ball of light in JTTW chapters 34 and 42 (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, pp. 126 and 241). And he turns into a gust of wind to follow a foe in JTTW chapter 60 (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 140). This could easily be used to escape as well.
A beta reader suggested that I work Erlang and his sworn brothers back into the story. They could track down and capture Monkey. But however the situation is resolved, this would lead to the events of the original story: the Great Sage’s failed execution, his sentence to Laozi’s furnace, his escape and wager with Buddha, his imprisonment beneath Five Elements Mountain, and his eventual release to go on the journey. And since Wukong comes into contact with Erlang once more and the Vajra warriors several times in the standard version, [W] he would likely meet HV again during the pilgrimage. The Son of Zeus might even comment on his positive change in character as Tripitaka’s disciple and protector.
W) The Great Sage meets Erlang again in chapter 63 (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, pp. 187-191). Regarding Vajra warriors, refer back to section 1.2.
Two beta readers were disappointed by the ending because they didn’t think HV could defeat the Great Sage. As a longtime uberfan of Monkey myself, I understand that sentiment, but they should remember that this is not just the Heracles of Greco-Roman myth, who’s immensely powerful in his own right, able to support the sky on his shoulders in one myth (Salapata, 2021, p. 152). He’s an amalgam of the Greek hero and the Buddha’s protector. Recall that Vajrapani is considered the embodiment of all the Tathagatas’ power (refer back to note O). And If the dharma of one Buddha can easily defeat Monkey (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, pp. 195 and 199), a being endowed with the power of ALL of them should have no problem subduing our favorite primate immortal.
I feel like this idea has so much potential, but I lack the experience or talent to do it justice here. Hopefully, readers will see through the lackluster description to understand the promise of greatness that it holds. Please let me know if anyone is interested in fleshing out this tale.
Lastly, while finishing this section, I came upon a fun coincidence: ancient Greco-Buddhist stone carvings with HV, the Buddha, and … a monkey (figs. 9 & 10)! They depict “The Monkey Offering Honey (to the Buddha)” (Ch: Mihou xianmi, 獼猴獻蜜; Mihou fengmi, 獼猴奉蜜), a tale from the Tathagata’s lifetime where a primate selflessly offered him honey but shortly thereafter fell and died via drowning or impalement. Thankfully, though, the primate was reborn into the deva realm (Van der Geer, 2022, pp. 439-440). [W] The carvings depict HV watching over the Enlightened One during this event.
Perhaps, based on these images, HV tells Wukong at some point during their confrontation that he reminds him of someone from the past. (Fanfic theory: could the Great Sage be a reincarnation?)
W) The historical Xuanzang mentions a version of this story where the primate is later reborn as a human (Li, 1996/2017, p. 106). He adds that the area where the offering originally happened hosts images of monkeys (mihou xingxiang, 獼猴形像) next to a water tank or pond supposedly dug by a group of them for the Enlightened One (Li, 1996/2017, p. 184). [4]
Fig. 9 (Left) – Detail of a stone doorway fragment with two stacked carvings illustrating “The Monkey Offering Honey (to the Buddha)” story, Gandhara, 1st to 3rd-century CE, Schist (larger version). The upper scene portrays the primate asking for a bowl, while the lower depicts the offering of honey. HV is present in both: first from the left on the top and first from the right on the bottom. He lacks his beard and lionskin but wields his signature weapon. The extra person photobombing the lower scene may be Ananda. Fig. 10 (Right) – The full stone doorway fragment portraying various events from the Tathagata’s life (larger version). Housed in the Guimet Museum, Paris, France. Adapted from an image found on Wikimedia Commons. Copyright Marie-Lan Nguyen.
3. An Idea for a Sequel
A continuation of the story would open where the original leaves off: after the scripture-pilgrims are elevated in spiritual rank, Tathagata charges HV with escorting the Victorious Fighting Buddha (i.e. Sun Wukong; fig. 11) through the Greek world-system. Imagine the kind of adventures Monkey would have as a Buddha interacting with Classical gods and monsters! It would definitely be a great way of introducing East Asian people to the wonders of Greek myth.
I really like the idea of HV visiting his old pantheon as his vajra is analogous to Zeus’ thunderbolt. Seeing a father-son lightning competition would be great!
Fig. 11 – Wukong as the Victorious Fighting Buddha (larger version). Imagery based on the iconography of the historical Yuddhajaya Buddha. Art by NingadudeXx.
3.1. Commissioned Art
I have commissioned some illustrators to draw Monkey in ancient Greek style as an experiment to see what he might look like through the lens of Hellenistic artisans.
Fig. 12 – The Victorious Fighting Buddha (larger version). Pencil, fineliners, and alcohol markers on paper. Art by tr0chanter (Instagram and Twitter).
Fig. 13 – Heracles vs Monkey (larger version). Pencil and markers on paper. Art by Dario Virga (Onibotokemaru on Instagram), a friend of the blog. Each character is labeled with their name in Greek. Heracles is “Ἡρακλῆς,” while the Great Sage is “Pithekos” (πῐ́θηκος), meaning “ape, monkey, trickster, or dwarf.” Wukong’s Greek name is very fitting. It’s also part of the modern scientific name for Old world monkeys (Cercopithecoidea).
I can already predict fanfiction set in an alternate timeline where Monkey accepts HV’s offer to become his teacher. The Son of Zeus would spend time instructing Wukong on advanced techniques of boxing, wrestling, and weapons. This, of course, would be taught in tandem with spiritual cultivation. The training might be in preparation for a fighting tournament between the disciples of gods from all pantheons, kind of like Record of Ragnarok (Jp: Shūmatsu no Warukyūre, 終末のワルキューレ; lit. “Doomsday Valkyrie”; fig. 15). The contestants could be fighting for permission to start their own pantheon, thereby becoming a “Sky Father” (Sk: Dyaus-pitr, द्यौष्पितृ; Ch: Tianshang fuqin, 天上父親). Maybe the long-established Sky Fathers share some of their divine spark to kickstart the new world-system.
I REALLY like this idea, but it wouldn’t work for my own purposes since, as stated above, Wukong would still need to go on the journey.
Perhaps the prize could be the chance to help mankind since one of the reasons that Tripitaka is asked to quest for sutras is because they will help free untold numbers of orphaned souls from the torments of hell (see JTTW chapters 11 and 12). Therefore, the tournament would essentially be a contest to see who will be the Tang Monk’s protector. I don’t really like this idea, but it at least supports the original narrative. The Great Sage would win, of course, but he has to agree to have his extraordinary powers (and memories of the tournament) sealed as a test of his resolve or devotion. And his subsequent enlightenment would be the reward for his great deeds performed on the journey.
I’ve seen people claim online that Sun Wukong would easily defeat Heracles because the latter’s feats are not as grand as the former. To this, I counter that the deeds of both heroes shouldn’t be compared, for they serve difference purposes. I don’t know of any feats of speed for Heracles, but Monkey’s famous ability to fly 108,000 li (33,554 mi / 54,000 km) in a single cloud somersault is an allegory for instant enlightenment (as explained in section III here). [5] And his feat of carrying two Buddhist mountains on his shoulders is likely an allegory for the Great Sage “supporting” the religion by protecting his master on the quest for sutras (as I suggest here). The deeds of Heracles, however, were probably meant as actual displays of brute strength. For instance, ancient Greek men on lion hunts may have drawn inspiration and courage from the demi-god’s defeat of the Nemean Lion. [6]
Update: 10-26-25
Above, I wrote that “[m]aybe Monkey frantically cycles through one trick after another” in a failed bid to win, and I later added, “I would like to see HV maneuver to Monkey’s back and get him in a chokehold.” Well, I’m happy to report that I’ve found a mythic way to combine these. The Bibliotheca of Pseudo-Apollodorus describes Heracles’s grip tiring out a shape-shifting sea god:
And going on foot through Illyria and hastening to the river Eridanus he came to the nymphs, the daughters of Zeus and Themis. They revealed Nereus to him, and Hercules seized him while he slept, and though the god turned himself into all kinds of shapes, the hero bound him [with his arms (fig. 16)] and did not release him till he had learned from him where were the apples and the Hesperides (2.5.11).
Matyszak (2015) calls this binding a “Herculean head-lock” (p. 150). Therefore, in our story, Wukong cycles through all manner of transformations but can’t break free from HV’s grip! Then he loses heart and flees when he sees his children captured (as mentioned previously).
Fig. 16 – Heracles wrestling Nereus/Triton (larger version). From an 1894 drawing of a circa 550 BCE Attic Black-figure Kylix. Image found on Wikimedia Commons. For the original, see here.
Update: 10-29-25
I’ve also found a mythic reason for why Heracles would be sent away from Olympus to protect Buddha. Matyszak (2015) explains that the Son of Zeus didn’t want to become an official member of the Twelve Olympians because this would have forced someone out of the group:
Some felt that the mighty deeds of Hercules entitled him to the status of a full Olympian God. However, the number of Olympians was limited to the sacred number of twelve, and in a rare moment of diplomacy Hercules declined to take an honour that would have first to be stripped from someone else. (Dionysus, the God of Wine was less bashful. He bumped Hestia, Goddess of the Home, off the Olympian high table when his time came to be made divine.) (p. 200)
So instead of taking an Olympian’s spot, Heracles decides to accept a position within the Buddhist pantheon as the Tathagata’s protector.
Update: 12-02-25
I have found the specific passage alluded to by Matyszak (2015) in the previous update. In book four of his Library of History (c. 60 to 30 BCE), Diodorus Siculus writes:
[4.39.4] They report of Heracles further that Zeus enrolled him among the twelve gods but that he would not accept this honour; for it was impossible for him thus to be enrolled unless one of the twelve gods were first cast out; hence in his eyes it would be monstrous for him to accept an honour which involved depriving another god of his honour (source).
Update: 02-19-26
In March 2023, Twitter user @LinJKai posted a lovely 18 x 24-inch (45.72 x 60.96 cm) digital painting titled “Hercules as Vajrapani” (fig. 17). It depicts HV, the 12 labors, and various Greek gods in Tibetan thangka style. I adore this so much! I’d love to commission a physical copy.
I originally couldn’t think of a feat of strength for HV that would outdo Monkey, but something has come to mind. In JTTW chapter 33, a demon uses the “Magic of Moving Mountains and Pouring Out Oceans” (Yishan daohai fashu, 移山倒海法術) to drop two holy landmasses on Monkey in the hope of incapacitating him. This does nothing to slow him down, though, so the fiend drops a third peak. But since the last ridge, Mount Tai (Taishan, 泰山), is considered the heaviest concept in Chinese philosophy, it instantly overpowers the Great Sage’s strength and pins him to the earth (see this article).
Now, imagine that Wukong uses the same magic to call up a column of mountains, perhaps capped with Mt. Tai, overhead (fig. 18), but not even this is enough to stop the Buddha’s protector. The Greco-Buddhist hero would continue to fight as if nothing is pressing down on him. This would surely frighten Monkey.
I like this because the Great Sage’s defeat in chapter 33 would thus be a call back to the punishment that he tried and failed to dish out during his fight with HV.
Fig. 18 – Imagine that the column of mountains above HV’s head looks something like this pile of stones (larger version). Image found here.
Update: 02-25-26
While writing the original article, I feared that I mischaracterized Heracles as being jovial with Wukong in what should have been a tense situation. However, I’ve found info that supports this. Galinsky (1972) explains:
Being close to the people as he was, Hesiod also portrayed Herakles as the folksy, jolly good fellow. The few fragments that have been preserved of the Wedding of Ceyx give us some indication of this. One of the main subjects of the poem was the wedding-feast of Ceyx and Alcyone at which Herakles intervened. He crashed the party, justifying himself with jovial magnificence: ‘Of their own accord good men betake themselves to good men’s feasts.’ This phrase became so proverbial that it was quoted, among others, by Plato in the Symposium. The remark shows that Hesiod attributed to Herakles the quality, which he undoubtedly found in the folktales, of taking himself lightly, and it kept our hero from becoming too lofty and untouchable. Much of the rest of the poem seems to have been concerned with Herakles’ prodigious appetite, a theme on which the comic poets were to seize with so much glee. Having stilled his hunger, Herakles entertained the party by proposing several riddles (p. 16-17).
Update: 02-28-26
Regarding the original DEATH BATTLE! episode, it’s interesting to note that Heracles has previously fought and killed a monstrous opponent born from an egg, just like Sun Wukong. Ibycus (6th century BCE) records the Greek hero saying: “I slew the white-horsed lads, the children of Molione, of the same age, equal-headed, single-bodied, both born in a silver egg” (Bowra, 1961, p. 245).
Update: 03-28-26
Above, I wrote, “With the presence of Greeks in Central and South Asia, I imagine he [Buddha] would also visit the Olympian gods who had gained some influence in the region.” Well, I’ve thought of a way to connect the structures of the mythic Greek and JTTW universes:
I’ve previously discussed how the novel is set in the Buddhist disc-world system—i.e. a flat earth (see below). It’s interesting to note that the archaic Greeks also believed in a flat earth. The wonderful Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology explains:
As viewed from their perspective, as people who lived on the edge of a land mass, it might naturally have appeared to take the form of a circular disc, more or less level except were hills or mountains rose up from it, capped by the immense roof or dome of the sky. On the one side the sun and stars could be seen rising above the horizon, while on the other they disappeared at their setting; and since they always rose on the same side, in the east, they must presumably have made their way back again, either under the ground or by some other hidden route. It was imagined that the outermost boundary of this disc of the earth was formed by the stream of Ocean (Oceanos), which was not an ocean in the modern sense but a great river flowing in a circle around the edges of the earth. The sky was envisioned as a substantial roof or, later, dome sometimes said to be made of bronze or iron, which rose to a considerable, though not immeasurable, height above the earth. Zeus and the higher gods could be imagined as residing in the sky itself, or else on the summit of Mt Olympos in north-eastern Greece, hence their familiar name of Olympian gods. If one could pile three large mountains one above another, as the gigantic Aloadai set out to do when they revolted against the gods …, it would be sufficient to form a ladder to heaven (Hard, 2020, p. 17).
Now, imagine that the purview of the Olympian gods and the borders of their disc-world (fig. 19) expand as Greeks traveling eastward bring their faith with them to Central and South Asia. This would allow the Greek cosmos to eventually overlap with the Buddhist realm (fig. 20). (The reverse would be true for westward-traveling Buddhists.) The result would look sort of like a Venn diagram, with the double-pointed oval in the middle indicating where the two realms intersect on our Earth.
Fig. 19 (Left) – A reconstruction of the Greek world based on the writings of Homer (larger version). The landmass is surrounded by the god Ocean. From Atlas of Ancient & Classical Geography (1928, plate 1). Fig. 20 (Right) – A diagram of the Buddhist cosmos (larger version). Mt. Sumeru is flanked by a continent and two islands on each of its four sides. The land is also surrounded by water; in this case, four great oceans. Adapted from Buswell & Lopez (2014, p. xxxii).
I should point out that JTTW changes the traditional structure of the Buddhist cosmos by placing China in the Southern Continent and moving India to the Western Continent (refer back to this article). Therefore, the western portion of the expanding Greek cosmos would more easily line up with the Buddhist cosmos.
Update: 04-08-2026
There is an interesting indirect connection between Wukong and Heracles by way of literature and religious iconography. I’ve previously written about Monkey’s noncanonical daughter, Yuebei xing (月孛星, “Moon Comet Star”) from Journey to the South (Nanyou ji, 南遊記, c. 1570s-1580s), who carries a magic skull with the power to kill even immortals. The historical deity on which she is based has human female and yaksha-like male forms, both of which carry a sword and severed head. This male version has a striking similarity to Arabo-Persian depictions of al-Mirrīkh (Ares/Mars), and the iconography of the latter is believed to be based on a constellation of the Greek demi-god Perseus holding the severed head of Medusa. Perseus is the great-grandfather of Heracles. [8]
1) Translation changed slightly. Although the English reads “a hundred yards,” the original Chinese says “100 zhang” (bai zhang, 百丈). One zhang is ten Chinese feet, or roughly 10.43 ft (3.18 m) (Jiang, 2005, p. xxxi). Therefore, 100 zhang would be 1,043 ft (314 m).
2) Yu (Wu & Yu, 2012) translates jingang (金剛) as “Diamond Guardians” (vol. 3, p. 24, for example). I’m changing it to just Vajra since the term can mean both “lightning” and “diamond.” I don’t want to confuse anyone.
3) Yes, this information comes from Wikipedia, but I’m the one who originally added it under the screenname “Ghostexorcist.” See this edit history, for example.
4) The English translation just says “tank” (Li, 1996/2017, p. 184), but the original Chinese word chi (池) can also mean “pond.”
5) The li(里) is a Chinese measurement of distance. English works usually translate it as “mile.” However, it equals roughly 1/3rd of a mile or 1/2 of a kilometer.
6) Herodotus mentions mountain lions attacking the caravan camels of Xerxes on his route through Greece (The Histories, 7.125–126). If such thing routinely happened to local travelers, this would have affected regular lion hunts. And this 16th-century BCE Minoan blade suggests that lion hunts go back centuries.
7) Heracles uses the Sun-God‘s goblet in order to sail Ocean to the destination of his tenth labor (Bibliotheca, 2.5.10). However, according to Pherecydes, “Ocean, to make trial of him, caused the goblet to heave wildly on the waves. Herakles was about to shoot him with an arrow; and the Ocean was afraid, and bade him give over” (Bibliotheca, 2.5.10, n. 7).
Also, the extent of his tenth labor set the limit for human travel:
[S]ince the Pillars or Columns of Heracles—the name usually associated with the twin rocks standing astride the Straits of Gibraltar—afforded the only known connection between the familiar Mediterranean and alien Ocean, they became a vivid symbol of the gateway or barrier between inner and outer worlds. For the most part they stood in the Greek imagination as a forbidding non plus ultra, a warning to mariners not to proceed any further. Pindar, for example, adopts this landmark as a paradigm of the limits to human daring, in his celebrations of victorious athletes:
Now Theron, approaching the outer limit in his feats of strength, touches the Pillars of Heracles. What lies beyond cannot be approached by wise men or unwise. I shall not try, or I would be a fool. (Ol. 3.4–5)
As a man of beauty, who accomplishes feats beautiful as himself, the son of Aristophanes may set forth on supreme, manly endeavors; but not easily across the untrodden sea, beyond the Pillars of Heracles, which that hero-god set in place, as a famed witness of the furthest limit of seafaring. (Nem. 3.20–23)
By the uttermost deeds of strength did these men touch the Pillars of Heracles, an achievement all their own; let none pursue valor any farther than that. (Isthm. 4.11–14)
In these passages Pindar measures the prowess of his athlete patrons in geographic terms, seeing their victories as journeys into distant space; but these journeys must end, he insists, before they enter the forbidden realm of Ocean. The Pillars have here come to stand for the boundary of the human condition itself: To pass beyond them is the prerogative of god alone, or of mythic figures like Heracles who manage to bridge the human and divine (Romm, 1992, pp. 17-18).
8) Perseus had several children, but I will only present the human line that leads to our hero: Perseus ⇒ Electryon (son) ⇒ Alcmena/Alcmene (granddaughter) ⇒ Heracles (great-grandson) (Bibliotheca, 2.4.5 & 2.4.8).
Sources:
Atlas of Ancient & Classical Geography. (1928). London & Toronto: J.M Dent & Sons, LTD.; New York: E. P. Dutton & Co.
Bowra, C. M. (1961). Greek Lyric Poetry from Alcman to Simonides. United Kingdom: Clarendon Press.
Buswell, R. E., & Lopez, D. S. (2014). The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Finglass, P. J. (2021). LABOR X: The Cattle of Geryon and the Return from Tartessus. In D. Ogden (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Heracles (pp. 135-148). United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.
Galinsky, K. (1972). The Herakles Theme: The Adaptations of the Hero in Literature from Homer to the Twentieth Century. New Jersey: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers.
Hard, R. (2020). The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology (8th ed.). London & New York: Taylor & Francis.
Jiang, Y. (2005). The Great Ming Code / Da Ming Lu. Vancouver, Wa: University of Washington Press.
March, J. (2021). LABOR I: The Nemean Lion. In D. Ogden (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Heracles (pp. 29-44). United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.
Matyszak, P. (2015). Hercules: The First Superhero (An Unauthorized Biography). Canada: Monashee Mountain Publishing.
Pache, C. (2021). Birth and Childhood. In D. Ogden (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Heracles (pp. 3-12). United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.
Romero-Gonzalez, D. (2021). Deianeira, Death, and Apotheosis. In D. Ogden (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Heracles (pp. 266-280). United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.
Romm, J. S. (1992). The Edges of the Earth in Ancient Thought: Geography, Exploration, and Fiction. Princeton University Press.
Salapata, G. (2021). LABOR XI: The Apples of Hesperides. In D. Ogden (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Heracles (pp. 149-164). United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.
Shahar, M. (2008). The Shaolin Monastery: History, Religion, and the Chinese Martial Arts. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press.
Van der Geer, A. A. E. (2022). The Great Monkey King: Carvings of Primates in Indian Religious Architecture (pp. 431-455). In B. Urbani, D. Youlatos, & A. Antczak (Eds.), World Archaeoprimatology: Interconnections of Humans and Nonhuman Primates in the Past. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.
If you were to ask someone to name Sun Wukong‘s master, those familiar with Journey to the West (Xiyouji, 西遊記, 1592; “JTTW” hereafter) would probably say Tang Tripitaka (Tang Sanzang, 唐三藏). But many forget that the cleric is actually his second master. His first, the Patriarch Subodhi (Xuputi zushi, 須菩提祖師; a.k.a. “Patriarch Puti / Bodhi,” Puti zushi, 菩提祖師), is rarely brought up in conversation, but this wise old man and elderly martial arts master archetype is the source of the Monkey King’s divine longevity, magical skills, and fighting prowess. He, therefore, deserves his own article. I’ve already written several pieces mentioning him, so I’ve decided to combine everything (including new material) onto a single page.
This article describes his origins, story in the novel, and description; the location, description, and meaning of the name of his mountain home; his school uniform; how he names his students and why the Monkey King is called Sun Wukong; his religious, magical, and martial arts curriculum, including tests of spiritual intelligence; and his spiritual powers. Despite his common portrayal as a Daoist immortal (xian, 仙), the novel stresses a connection to Buddhism. I ultimately suggest that the Patriarch Subodhi is a bodhisattva (pusa, 菩薩), albeit one with Daoist leanings.
Subodhi is based on Subhūti (Xuputi, 須扶提 / 須浮帝 / 蘇補底 / 蘇部底) (fig. 1), [1] one of the ten principal disciples of the Gautama Buddha. He plays an understated role in the original Pāli canon of Theravāda Buddhism, being recognized by the Buddha as the most accomplished in meditating on the concept of “loving-kindness” (Pāli: Metta; Sanskrit: Maitri), or wishing for the happiness of others (Buswell & Lopez, 2014, pp. 861-862; Osto, 2016, pp. 126-127). On the contrary, Subhūti plays a much larger role in Prajñāpāramitā texts of Mahāyāna Buddhism in which he is famed for contemplating “emptiness” (Pāli: suññatā; Sk: śūnyatā; Ch: kong, 空), a subject with textual interpretations ranging from ridding oneself of sexual desires to realizing the truth of the illusionary nature of Saṃsāra (Buswell & Lopez, 2014, pp. 872; Osto, 2016, p. 126). Because of this, he is also known in Chinese as the “One who expounded vacuity [emptiness]” (Kongsheng, 空生) (Soothill & Hodous, 1937/2014, p. 277). In fact, Osto (2016) suggests that Subhūti was secretly a bodhisattva, reasoning: “How else would he have the necessary insight to understand the profound and paradoxical philosophy of emptiness (śūnyatā) as it is found in these texts?” (p. 128). [2]
Fig. 1 – A detail of Subhūti from a woodblock frontispiece appearing in an 868 CE copy of the Diamond Sutra (larger version). This document is the oldest known dated printed book in the world (full woodblock).
Shao (2006) suggests that Subodhi was modeled on the historical disciple “to evoke a scriptural tradition that identifies Subhūti as the Buddhist at his best, one having the spiritual and intuitive approximation to ’emptiness’ … that the Chan [Zen] Buddhists value tremendously” (p. 723). He continues:
Is it then possible that what the novelist tried to highlight with Subhūti’s name was his reputation as the epitome of emptiness? We can certainly find ample textual evidence to support this line of thinking. Although Monkey’s Taoist realization is worthy of heaven, his Buddhist given name Wukong, or Awaken to Emptiness, obviously represents Subhūti’s Buddhist heritage, for the name is exactly what distinguishes Subhūti in the Buddhist tradition. What gives proof of the power and vitality of this bequest is the fact that “emptiness” constitutes the core of Monkey’s religious being (Shao, 2006, p. 724).
It should be noted that the complete Chinese name Xuputi (須菩提) is only used once in the novel to refer to the Patriarch (see here), while Puti (菩提) is used at least three times (see here). This is interesting as the latter term is a transliteration of bodhi (Pāli & Sk: “awakening” or “enlightenment”), an important concept in Buddhism in which one discovers the Four Noble Truths, thereby achieving enlightenment and freeing themself from the cycle of rebirth (Buswell & Lopez, 2014, p. 129). Therefore, the novel positions the Patriarch as a means to or even embodiment of enlightenment. This is fitting given Osto’s (2016) suggestion above that the historical Subhūti was a bodhisattva, “a ‘being’ (sattva) intent on awakening (bodhi) who has aroused the aspiration to achieve buddhahood” (Buswell & Lopez, 2014, p. 129). More on this below.
2. The Literary Teacher
2.1. His Story
Subodhi is introduced by name in JTTW chapter one when a woodcutter tells the Monkey King about the sage and the location of his mountain home. He learns that the Patriarch “has already sent out innumerable disciples” and that at present “there are thirty or forty persons who are practicing austerities with him” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 112). After a quick exchange with an immortal lad at the front door, the Stone Monkey is led to a hall where Subodhi is lecturing to a group of “lesser immortals” (xiaoxian, 小仙). The Patriarch asks for his name and the location of his home but becomes upset as he believes Monkey is lying about his ten year journey from afar. However, after being assured of the truth and hearing of the miraculous stone birth, Subodhi officially accepts the primate as a disciple, giving him the religious name Sun Wukong (孫悟空, “Monkey Awakened to Emptiness”).
In the opening of JTTW chapter two, the Patriarch has his immortal students tutor Monkey in menial tasks like fetching firewood and water, tending the garden, and cleaning the monastery grounds, as well as provide lessons on human language and etiquette, calligraphy, scripture reading, and minor ritual procedures like incense burning. Seven years later, Subodhi notices Sun jumping around in excitement as the primate listens to his lecture. He thereafter offers to teach Monkey a number of skills, but the latter refuses multiple times since they won’t lead to immortality. This rejection makes the Patriarch visually upset, leading him to strike Sun on the head three times with a ruler and then walk away with his hands behind his back. His senior religious brothers chastise him for angering their master, but due to his spiritual intelligence, Sun realizes that the admonishment was really secret code. He later enters Subodhi’s room at the third watch (three hits) using a back door (hands behind back), and it is there where the teacher reveals the secret of immortality in a flowery poem.
After Monkey successfully attains eternal life three years later, the Patriarch teaches him the 72 transformations in order to hide from three heaven-sent elemental attacks slated to destroy him. In addition, he teaches the cloud-somersault, a method of super fast flight. Sun’s religious brothers are amazed at his attainments and request that he display his power of transformation by changing into a pine tree. The resulting applause disturbs Subodhi, who sends the others away before reprimanding and expelling his disciple under the pretense of saving Monkey’s life from those who would harm him to learn his heavenly secrets. But before Sun has a chance to leave, his master threatens him with everlasting torment in the underworld if he ever reveals that the Patriarch had been his tutor. Monkey promises never to speak his name. This is the last time that Subodhi is seen in the story, but he is referenced two more times in later chapters (see section 3.4 below).
2.2. Allusions to Historical Buddhist Masters
Shao (1997) writes that Subodhi hitting Monkey on the head three times—a coded message for receiving secret teachings in the Master’s room at the third watch—is likely based on two episodes from the life of Huineng (惠能, 638-713), the Sixth Chan (Zen) Patriarch:
According to [the Platform Sutra], Huineng was pounding grain when Hongren [the 5th Chan Patriarch] came in, “hit on the mortar three times with his stick and then left” (以杖击碓三下而去). The non-verbal message occurred to the young man as a piece of intuition. By the third watch he arrived dutifully at the master’s chamber where Hongren passed the secret Dharma by way of enlightening him on [the Diamond Sutra], behind a raised cassock used to protect them from the intrusion of prying eyes. The other source is Caoxi dashi biezhuan曹溪大师别传 (An Alternative Biography of the Great Master From Caoxi) in which Huineng hit Shenhui … a few times, seemingly annoyed by the insolence of his disciple’s clever repartee. But it was to none other than Shenhui that he imparted the secret Dharma—in the middle of the night, and with a similar group of dumb disciples who had seen nothing but impudence in Shenhui (pp. 60-61).
The allusion to Hongren and his use of the Diamond Sutra is apt as the historical Subhūti plays a large part in the scripture. His questions fuel the lesson, with the “Buddha’s reply constitut[ing] the body of the sutra” (Watson, 2010, p. 72).
Therefore, the aforementioned episodes associate the Patriarch with two enlightened Chan masters and their secret, unorthodox transmission of the Dharma, supporting his connection to Buddhism.
The novel includes a third allusion to Huineng. This will be discussed in section 4.3 below.
2.3. His Description
The novel never gives an overt description of Subodhi’s features or dress. This ambiguity makes him a blank slate onto which anyone’s personal vision can be written. But there are a few references to his stately, awe-inspiring presence. A poem in chapter one reads:
A Golden Immortal of Great Awareness and of great ken and purest mien,
Master Bodhi, whose wondrous appearance like the West
Had no end or birth by work of the Double Three.
His whole spirit and breath were with mercy filled.
Empty, spontaneous, it could change at will,
His Buddha-nature able to do all things.
The same age as Heaven had his majestic frame.
Fully tried and enlightened was this grand priest (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 114). [4]
Numerous elements from this poem require explanation. “Golden Immortal of Great Awareness” (Dajue jinxian, 大覺金仙) was a title bestowed on the Buddha by Song Emperor Huizong in 1119 in order to bring Buddhism under the banner of Daoism (Eskildsen, 2008, p. 43 n. 32). (See the 04-14-26 update below for more info.) “Wonderous appearance like the West” (Xifang miaoxiang, 西方妙相) compares the splendor of his person to the Western Pure Land (Sk: Sukhāvatī; Ch: Xifang jingtu, 西方淨土) of the Amitābha Buddha. “No end and no birth” (busheng bumie, 不生不滅) refers to his eternal life free from the wheel of reincarnation, which is thanks to his mastery of the “Double Three” (Sansan xing, 三三行). Yu (Wu & Yu, 2012) explains that this term likely refers to the “three samādhis,” a high-level meditation technique which focuses on the Buddhist philosophical concepts of emptiness, no appearance, and no desires (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 507 n. 16). “Empty” (kong, 空) in the next line of course refers to Subodhi’s constant meditations on emptiness. “Buddha-nature” (Sk: tathāgatagarbha, lit: “womb of the tathāgata“; Ch: Zhenru benxing, 真如本性; a.k.a. Rulai zang, 如來藏) is “the potential to achieve buddhahood that, according to some Mahāyāna schools, is inherent in all sentient beings” (Buswell & Lopez, 2014, p. 897). This is an open reference to the Buddho-Daoist philosophy of the Southern Quanzhen School Patriarch Zhang Boduan (張伯端, mid to late-980s-1082), which greatly influenced JTTW. He believed that in order to become a true transcendent (xian, 仙), one had to achieve both the Daoist elixir of immortality and Buddha-nature (Shao, 1997; 2006). This dual achievement thus signifies that Subodhi is a celestial of the highest order. His “majestic” (or stately) body (zhuangyan ti, 莊嚴體) is said to have the “same age as heaven” (yutian tongshou, 與天同壽), a phrase used in the novel to denote the endless longevity of such divine beings (see here). The last line notes that he is a fully “enlightened” (mingxin, 明心; lit: “illuminous heart-mind”) master. Taken together, the allusions to Buddhas, the Western paradise, emptiness, and enlightenment speak to Subodhi’s identity as a Buddhist deity. And given his association with bodhi (awakening), I suggest that he is in fact a bodhisattva like his namesake, albeit one with Daoist leanings.
A Daoist bodhisattva may seem paradoxical, but this concept comfortably fits into the syncretic worldview espoused in late-Ming literature. For example, three well-known bodhisattvas are depicted as former high-ranking immortals in Investiture of the Gods (Fengshen yanyi, 封神演義, c. 1620). These include Guanyin (觀音) as “Person of the Way, Compassionate Ferry” (Cihang daoren, 慈航道人) (fig. 2), Mañjuśrī (Wenshu, 文殊) as the “Dharma-Spreading Heavenly Master of Outstanding Culture” (Wenshu guangfa tianzun, 文殊廣法天尊), and Samantabhadra (Puxian, 普賢) as the “Perfected Man of Universal Virtue” (Puxian zhenren, 普賢真人). Together, they later convert to Buddhism and become disciples of the Buddha at the end of chapter 83. [3]
Fig. 2 – A modern idol of Guanyin’s Daoist persona Person of the Way, Compassionate Ferry (larger version).
2.4. An Ancient Depiction
The standard 1592 edition of JTTW was originally published with a series of quaint woodblock prints. One features an image of the Patriarch, depicting him as a robed master holding a palace fan while seated in an ornate chair. He wears a guan-cap and has a kind face with airy whiskers and hints of large-lobed ears (fig. 3 and 4).
(See the 04-15-26 update below for a modern religious idol of the sage.)
Fig. 3 (Left)- A woodblock of Monkey meeting the Patriarch for the first time (larger version). From the standard 1592 edition of the novel. Fig. 4 (Right) – A detail of Subodhi (larger version).
The novel remarks on the beauty of the mountain as Monkey walks through a forest to the school’s front entrance:
Mist and smoke in diffusive brilliance,
Flashing lights from the sun and moon,
A thousand stalks of old cypress,
Ten thousand stems of tall bamboo.
A thousand stalks of old cypress
Draped in rain half fill the air with tender green;
Ten thousand stems of tall bamboo
Held in smoke will paint the glen chartreuse.
Strange flowers spread brocades before the door.
Jadelike grass emits fragrance beside the bridge.
On ridges protruding grow moist green lichens;
On hanging cliffs cling the long blue mosses.
The cries of immortal cranes are often heard.
Once in a while a phoenix soars overhead.
When the cranes cry,
Their sounds reach through the marsh to the distant sky.
When the phoenix soars up,
Its plume with five bright colors embroiders the clouds.
Black apes and white deer may come or hide;
Gold lions and jade elephants may leave or bide.
A Blessed Land [Fudi] to be seen in spirit:
It has the true semblance of Paradise (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, pp. 112-113).
“Blessed lands” (Fudi, 福地) are thought to be “earthly paradises that do not suffer from floods, wars, epidemics, illnesses, old age or death” (Miura, 2008, p. 368). Daoism recognizes 72 Blessed Lands, each with their own documented name and location (Miura, 2008, p. 371).
The names of the cave and mountain reference the philosophical concept of the “heart-mind” (xin, 心), the center of spiritual intellect, no less than three times. As I explain in this article, the name “slanted moon and three stars” is a literal description of the Chinese character for the heart-mind (fig. 5). “Spirit Tower/platform” (lingtai, 靈臺) is used in Daoist literature to refer to the heart-mind, more specifically the middle elixir field (zhong dantian, 中丹田) around the heart, which is considered the seat of the spirit. During internal alchemical meditation, the spirit is directed from here, along with other energetic substances from elsewhere, into the “square inch” (fangcun, 方寸). This too is a Daoist reference to the heart-mind, more specifically the lower elixir field (xia dantian, 下丹田) around the abdomen, the storehouse of vital energies. The synergy of these energies is thought to bolster the body and bring about immortality. Therefore, a more accurate translation of Patriarch Subodhi’s home, which takes into account the veiled Daoist meanings, would be “Cave of the Slanted Moon and Three Stars on the Mountain of Spiritual Heart and Elixir Mind.”
Fig. 5 – The Chinese character for heart-mind (xin) literally looks like a crescent moon surmounted by three stars. Original image found here.
Therefore, the name of the Patriarch’s mountain home is a double metaphor for Daoist alchemical and Buddhist philosophical concepts.
3.4. References in Later Chapters
Monkey references Subodhi and his mountain home twice in the novel. He recites a biographical poem in chapter 17 in which he states:
[…]
Seedlings of herbs I plucked on Spirit Tower Mountain.
There was in that mountain an old immortal.
His age: one hundred and eight thousand years!
He became my master most solemnly
And showed me the way to longevity
[…] (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 352). [6]
The location of this mountain is revealed in chapter one during Monkey’s first conversation with Subodhi. After hearing of Sun’s travels, the Patriarch asks:
[H]ow is it that you mention the East Purvavideha Continent? Separating that place and mine are two great oceans and the entire region of the Southern Jambudvipa Continent. How could you possibly get here? (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 114).
The world of JTTW is modeled on Hindo-Buddhist cosmic geography, which places the Eastern Purvavideha Continent (Sk: “Surpassing the body”; Ch: Dongsheng shenzhou, 東勝神洲), the Southern Jambudvipa Continent (Sk: “Rose-Apple”; Ch: Nanshan buzhou, 南贍部洲), the Western Godaniya Continent (Sk: “Using Cattle”; Ch: Xiniu hezhou, 西牛賀洲), the Northern Uttarakuru Continent (Sk: “Unpleasant Sound”; Ch: Beiju luzhou, 北俱盧洲) around the four respective faces of Mount Sumeru (Ximi shan, 須彌山; Miaogao shan, 妙高山), a giant mountain that serves as the axis mundi of the cosmos, as well as the abode of assorted gods and sages (Buswell & Lopez, 2014, p. 869) (fig. 6). While said geography traditionally associates Southern Jambudvipa with India, or the known world to the ancient people of South Asia (Buswell & Lopez, 2014, p. 377), the novel places the “Land of the East” (Dongtu, 東土) (i.e. China) within the continent and associates India with Western Godaniya (Wu & Yu, 2012, pp. 204-205). Therefore, Subodhi’s mountain is located in India, further strengthening his link with Buddhism.
Fig. 6 – A diagram showing a bird’s-eye view of Hindo-Buddhist cosmic geography as presented in JTTW. Adapted from Buswell & Lopez, 2014, p. xxix (larger version).
4. School
4.1. Possible Uniform
Upon returning to the Mountain of Flowers and Fruit from Subodhi’s school in chapter two, the novel describes Sun Wukong’s clothing through the eyes of a monster imp: “He is bare-headed, wears a red robe with a yellow sash, and has a pair of black boots on” (Wu & Yu, vol. 1, p. 127). The “red robe” is vague, but a poem in chapter one states that the immortal lad who invited Monkey into the cave was wearing a “wide robe with two sleeves of wind” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 113). This probably references the large, open arms of the zhiduo robe (直裰; a.k.a. haiqing, 海青), which is known colloquially in English as “Buddhist monk” or “Taoist monk” robes (fig. 7).
The novel doesn’t mention Monkey changing his clothing prior to returning home, so this might describe his school uniform.
Fig. 7 – A zhiduo robe with large sleeves (larger version). Image found here. Imagine this robe red, with a yellow sash at the waist.
4.2. Student Naming Scheme
Subodhi is shown to have 12 generational names (zibei, 字輩) used to name the cohorts of his religious lineage.
Three of the listed names, Zhi (智), Yuan (圓), and Jue (覺), were historically used in Daoism. [7]
Monkey is part of the tenth generation (Wu & Yu, 2012, p. 115), meaning that all of Subodhi’s students taken in around the same time would all have Wu (悟) in their name.
The novel explains in detail why Subodhi names his primate disciple Sun Wukong, tying it to Buddho-Daoist philosophy:
The Patriarch laughed and said, “Though your features are not the most attractive, you do resemble a pignolia-eating monkey (husun [猢猻]). This gives me the idea of taking a surname for you from your appearance. I intended to call you by the name Hu [猢]. If I drop the animal radical [犭] from this word, what’s left is a compound made up of the two characters, gu [古] and yue [月]. Gu means aged and yue [“moon”] denotes feminine yin energy [陰], but aged yin cannot reproduce. Therefore, it is better to give you the surname of Sun [猻]. If I drop the animal radical from this word, what we have left is the compound of zi [子] and xi [系]. Zi means a boy and xi means a baby, and that name exactly accords with the fundamental Doctrine of the Baby Boy [Ying’er zhi benlun, 嬰兒之本論]. So your surname will be ‘Sun.'”
[After explaining the generational names] “You will hence be given the religious name ‘Aware of Emptiness’ (wukong [悟空]). All right?” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 115).
Yu (Wu & Yu, 2012) explains: “The Baby Boy is none other than the ‘holy embryo or shengtai 聖胎,’ the avatar of the realized state of immortality in the adept’s body” (vol. 1, p. 86). Daoist doctrine dictates that the “Three Treasures” (Sanbao, 三寶) of semen (jing, 精), breath (qi, 氣), and spirit (shen, 神) be combined to create a holy embryo. The third stage of this internal alchemical process involves the nurturing of said embryo to maturation with spiritual energies and eventually guiding it upwards and out the Heavenly Gate (Tianguan, 天關), or the top of the crown. This results in a fledgling immortal spirit body that must be trained over an additional three year period in which it learns to travel far and wide apart from the physical vessel (Kohn, 2008, pp. 179-180). Therefore, Sun (孫) not only references the primate disciple’s appearance but also his Daoist immortality.
“Wukong” (悟空) combines “Emptiness” (Kong, 空) with “Awakening,” Wu (悟) being “one of the common Chinese translations for the Sanskrit term bodhi (awakening)” (i.e. the bodhi of Subodhi) (Buswell & Lopez, 2014, p. 998). Awakening takes two forms in Chan Buddhism: “instant” (dunwu, 頓悟) and “gradual” (jianwu, 漸悟). The former involves the sudden manifestation of inherent Buddha-nature (see section 2.3), while the latter involves compounding realization, often over a long period of purification (Buswell & Lopez, 2014, p. 998; see also pp. 273 and 384-385). As explained in section 1, bodhi involves realizing the Four Noble Truths, thereby achieving enlightenment and freeing oneself from the cycle of rebirth. Therefore, Wukong references said enlightenment.
Given the above information, another translation for Sun Wukong would be “Immortal Enlightened By Emptiness.” This shows that Monkey’s name incapsulates his story arc: attaining divine longevity in the beginning and ascending to Buddhahood at the end. This, again, is an open reference to the highly influential Buddho-Daoist philosophy of Zhang Boduan (see section 2.3).
4.3. Tests of Spiritual Intelligence
The Patriarch first offers to teach Monkey a selection of skills from the 360 “Side Gates” (bangmen, 傍門; a.k.a. pangmen, 旁門), noting that they will “result in illumination” (zhengguo, 正果; lit: “right fruit”) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 117). The skills include:
Method gate (Shuzi menzhong, 術字門中) – “[C]onsists of summoning immortals and working the planchette, of divination by manipulating yarrow stalks, and of learning the secrets of pursuing good and avoiding evil” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 117).
Dissemination gate (Liuzi menzhong, 流字門中) – “[I]ncludes the Confucians, the Buddhists, the Daoists, the Dualists, the Mohists, and the Physicians. They read scriptures or recite prayers; they interview priests or conjure up saints and the like” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 117).
Silence gate (Jingzi menzhong, 靜字門中) – “To cultivate fasting and abstinence … quiescence and inactivity, meditation and the art of cross-legged sitting, restraint of language, and a vegetarian diet. There are also the practices of yoga, exercises standing or prostrate, entrance into complete stillness, contemplation in solitary confinement, and the like” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, pp. 117-118).
Action gate (Dongzi menzhong, 動字門中) – “[G]athering the yin to nourish the yang, bending the bow and treading the arrow, and rubbing the navel to pass breath. There are also experimentation with alchemical formulas, burning rushes and forging cauldrons, taking red lead, making autumn stone, and drinking bride’s milk and the like” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 118).
However, the Side Gates, which number 3,600 in Daoist literature, were historically considered “unorthodox training methods of limited benefit” (Eskildsen, 2019, p. 43). This shows that Subodhi is testing his disciple to see if he will fall for studying lesser arts. But Sun passes by refusing to learn them.
Another test takes place when Monkey visits his master’s room at the third watch to receive secret teachings. Shao (2006) explains that, once again, the novel alludes to the Sixth Chan Patriarch Huineng:
[Monkey] sets the stage for a striking display of his unusually profound insight when he announces his intentions to become an immortal. This provokes Subhuti to issue him a challenge by refusing to teach him, for he is “some what different from other people.” Monkey may not realize that the master is trying to gauge his spiritual power, but he rises to the occasion with a genuine clarity of vision: “I have a round head pointing to Heaven, and square feet walking on Earth. Similarly, I have nine apertures and four limbs, entrails and cavities. In what way am I different from other people?”
[…]
[W]e may look to Huineng’s story from which Monkey garners meaning. No doubt, Monkey’s inspired cleverness is modeled on Huineng’s reply to Hongren, the fifth patriarch of Chinese Chan Buddhism, in Huineng’s Tanjing (The Platform Sutra). When Huineng announces his intentions to become a Buddha, Hongren pounces upon him with a poignant reminder that he is “from Lingnan,” a “barbarian,” and therefore cannot become a Buddha. Huineng refuses to be intimidated, however. He holds his own with an unparalleled depth of insight about Buddha-nature: There may be “northern and southern men,” but “the Buddha nature fundamentally has no north or south.” Surely Monkey’s phrasing, his unusual insightfulness, and the quickness and aplomb with which he rises to the challenge are reminiscent of Huineng … (pp. 719-720).
Monkey clearly passes this test, for his insightful reply convinces the Patriarch to teach him the secret of eternal life.
Subodhi no doubt uses such examinations to filter out unsuitable candidates, allowing only the brightest individuals to become his inner disciples.
4.4. Overtly Stated Curriculum and Tools
The novel specifically mentions Subodhi offering or teaching Monkey the following concepts:
The “Three Parties” refer to the Ming syncretic philosophy of the “Three Teachings” (Sanjiao, 三教), which combines elements from Buddhism, Daoism, and Confucianism. This shows that his disciples are given a well-rounded religious education, which explains why Sun is competent even in Buddhist scripture. [8]
Also, during his lectures on philosophy, Subodhi is said to wield a “Precepts ruler” (jiechi, 戒尺), which he uses to admonish his students (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 118). Such a device figures among the tools of Buddhism (Leong, 2001, p. 49).
2) Secret of Immortality – Breathing exercises designed to absorb yang energy during prescribed times (after midnight and before noon), the retention of chaste semen and transformation into qi energy, and the purification and circulation of the resulting spiritual energy throughout the body.
These internal methods are passed onto Monkey in secret via a flowery poem chocked full of alchemical imagery. It ends with the line, “When that’s done, be a Buddha or immortal at will!” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 120). Combined with his syncretic philosophy, this suggests that the Patriarch offers his students more than one spiritual path to divinity.
3) Transformations – A series of oral formulas that allow the user to change their body into any person, animal, or object. Two forms are offered: the 72 changes of the “Multitude of Terrestrial Killers” (Disha shu, 地煞數) and the 36 changes of the “Multitude of the Heavenly Rectifiers” (Tiangang shu, 天罡數) (based on Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 122; Meulenbeld, 2019, p. 7). [9]
Subodhi teaches this skill to Monkey with the expressed purpose of helping him hide from three calamities of cosmic lightning, fire, and wind sent by heaven to destroy immortals for defying fate and achieving eternal life. But beyond the power of metamorphosis, the novel implies that the ability also grants the user multiple lives (similar to a video game), which might serve as a buffer against the calamities. For example, in chapter 41, after Sun passes out from Red Boy‘s fiery attack, Zhu Bajie reassures everyone by saying: “If he is capable of seventy-two transformations, he has seventy-two lives” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, p. 232). Also, in chapter 46, Monkey magically regrows his head after being non-fatally beheaded in a contest of magical skill. Sha Wujing remarks: “If he knows seventy-two ways of transformation, … he may have altogether seventy-two heads!” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, p. 308). In addition, while not directly related to the primate hero, the Bull Demon King is said in chapter 61 to also know the 72 changes (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 148). He uses the extra lives to survive being beheaded by Prince Nezha a number of times:
[Nezha] leaped onto the bull’s back and brought his monster-cleaving sword down on the bull’s neck: the bull was beheaded at once. Putting away his scimitar, the devaraja was about to greet [Sun Wukong] when another head emerged from the torso of the bull, his mouth belching black air and his eyes beaming golden rays. [Nezha] lifted his sword once more and cut off the bull’s head; as soon as it dropped to the ground, another head came out. It went on like this more than ten times. At last, [Nezha] took out his fiery wheel and hung it on the Bull’s horn. The wheel at once started a great blaze of true immortal fire, which burned so fiercely that the bull began to growl and roar madly, shaking his head and wagging his tail (Wu & Yu, vol. 3, p. 160). [10]
This agrees with the connection between transformation and immortality in Daoism. Robinet (1979) explains that gods and saints are portrayed in Daoist literature as being in constant flux, changing with the seasons, taking on different guises and titles, disappearing and reappearing, never remaining the same, thereby living eternally.
4) Flight – A method of flying through the sky on divine clouds. Two types are offered: “cloud-soaring” (jiayun, 駕雲), the most common method used by celestials throughout the cosmos. It involves stamping the foot to summon clouds (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 123); and “cloud-somersaulting” (jindou yun, 觔/筋斗雲), the method chosen by Sun (fig. 8). It involves simultaneously “mak[ing] the magic sign, recit[ing] the spell, clench[ing] the fist tightly, shak[ing] the body” and then jumping into the sky, leaping from cloud to cloud (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 123). The latter method is by far the fastest, enabling the user to travel 108,000 li (33,554 mi / 54,000 km) in a single instant.
Shao (2006) states that the latter skill is based on a philosophical metaphor from Huineng’s Platform Sutra. The Chan Master explains that the common trope of the Buddha’s paradise being separated from the world of man by 108,000 li is based on a combination of the “Ten Evils” (Shi’e, 十惡) and “Eight Wrongs” (Baxie, 八邪) of Buddhism (see section III here). Those who rid themselves of these spiritual flaws will achieve enlightenment and thus arrive instantly at the Buddha’s paradise (Shao, 2006, p. 718; Huineng & Cleary, 1998, pp. 26-27). Therefore, Subodhi teaches a skill that’s a metaphor for instant enlightenment, further supporting his connection to Buddhism.
As noted in section 3.3, Sun states: “I bowed to the Patriarch of Spirit Tower and Square Inch / and perfected with him the martial arts [wuyi, 武藝]” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol 3, p. 243). [11]
5) Military arts – Monkey demonstrates knowledge in troop movement, weapons (swords, spears, axes, bows and arrows, staves, etc.), and unarmed boxing. His preferred method is “Short Fist” (Duan quan, 短拳), which is known for compact, short-ranged attacks. This is likely just one of many boxing styles taught by Subodhi.
Shahar (2008) explains that the martials arts of the famed Chan Buddhist Shaolin Monastery developed during the Ming-Qing transition from a synthesis of Daoist gymnastics (stretching and breathing exercises), religious rituals, and fist techniques. This new form of spiritual cultivation ushered in the era of so-called “internal martial arts,” Taiji boxing being the most famous among them. JTTW was published during the late-Ming when this synthesis was in full swing. Therefore, the study of martial arts in a religious institution is an accurate snapshot of one facet of 16th-century monastic life.
4.6. Inferred Curriculum
Although not directly stated, the following skills are likely learned while studying under the Patriarch.
6) General magic – Monkey is shown capable of calling forth gods and spirits, growing or shrinking to any size, parting fire and water, creating impassable barriers, conjuring wind storms, casting illusions, freezing people in place, making endless doubles of himself, unlocking any lock, bestowing superhuman strength, bringing the dead back to life, etc.
7) Traditional Chinese Medicine – Monkey knows how to analyze a patient’s pulse and then concoct individualized medicine from a number of raw ingredients.
This makes sense as a knowledge of harming and healing often goes hand in hand in traditional Chinese martial arts. A prime example is the folk hero Wong Fei-Hung (黃飛鴻, 1847-1925), a Hung Ga boxer and physician from Qing-era Guangdong.
5. His Powers
The breadth of skills taught to Monkey speaks to the Patriarch’s own vast array of magical and martial abilities. But he displays (or the narrative at least hints at him having) three additional powers.
Subodhi demonstrates the ability to see peoples, events, and times beyond his person in JTTW chapter one when Monkey first arrives at his home. An immortal lad opens the door and tells the primate:
“My master … has just left his couch to give a lecture on the platform. Before even announcing his theme, however, he told me to go out and open the door, saying, ‘There is someone outside who wants to practice austerities. You may go and receive him'” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, pp. 113-114).
At the end of JTTW chapter two, Subodhi makes a statement suggesting that he is aware of all things:
I forbid you ever to mention that you are my disciple. For if you but utter half the word, I’ll know about it; you can be assured, wretched monkey, that you’ll be skinned alive … (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 125).
The aforementioned powers raises a question: “If Subodhi has these abilities, why would he take Sun as a disciple knowing full well that he would later expel him for simply displaying his newly cultivated powers?” Someone might say showing off is a sign of ego and the need for validation, qualities unbecoming of a spiritual cultivator. But there is a better answer. Being a bodhisattva with the power of foresight, the Patriarch would no doubt foresee Monkey’s later attainment of Buddhahood, realizing that the trials and tribulations of protecting the Tang Monk on the journey to India would be the price that he needs to pay to gradually awaken (jianwu, 漸悟) his enlightenment. Therefore, expelling Sun would ignite the chain of events leading to his eventual Buddhahood. This would make Subodhi an agent of Dharma, one who uses whatever methods necessary to bring about the enlightenment of his disciples.
6. Conclusion
The Patriarch Subodhi finds his origins in Subhūti, one of the ten principal disciples of the historical Buddha known for his knowledge of “emptiness.” The literary figure’s connection to Buddhism is not in name only, however. The Chinese name used most in the novel to refer to Subodhi is Puti, a transliteration for bodhi (“awakening” or “enlightenment”). His story in JTTW is partly based on events from the lives of the respective Fifth and Sixth Chan (Zen) Patriarchs and their transmission of the Dharma. A poem in JTTW chapter one even compares him to the Buddha and the splendor of the Western paradise, as well as further ties him to emptiness and enlightenment.
The name of Subodhi’s home, Cave of the Slanted Moon and Three Stars on the Mountain of Spiritual Heart and Elixir Mind, serves as a double metaphor for Daoist internal alchemical practices and Buddhist concepts of the mind. It is described as a mountain paradise, and the cave therein is said to be filled with grand architecture, which is centered around the Patriarch’s green jade lecture platform. The mountain is located in the Western Godaniya Continent of Hindo-Buddhist cosmic geography, placing it squarely in India, home of the historical Subhūti.
Subodhi’s students possibly wear a red robe with large, open sleeves, a yellow sash, and black boots, and they are named according to a twelve generation character list. His choice for the Monkey King’s religious name, Sun Wukong, is packed full of philosophical significance related to the formation of a Daoist immortal spirit embryo and the manifestation of enlightenment. As for the Patriarch’s curriculum, he teaches Buddho-Daoist philosophy, the secret of eternal life, transformations, flight via cloud, armed and unarmed military arts, general magic, and Traditional Chinese Medicine. Tests of spiritual intelligence appear to be used to permit only the brightest into his inner circle.
Beyond the magical powers taught by him, Subodhi exhibits (or the narrative at least hints at him having) clairvoyance, omniscience, and control over souls and karmic results. His power of foresight might then explain why he accepted Monkey as a student, only to later expel him. This was likely done to ignite the chain of events that would eventually lead to Sun’s achievement of Buddhahood, thereby completing the last of Zhang Boduan’s two-step process towards Buddho-Daoist transcendence.
JTTW stresses the Patriarch’s status as a Buddhist deity, albeit one with Daoist leanings. Therefore, I suggest that he is a bodhisattva like (as one scholar has proposed) the historical Subhūti. A Daoist bodhisattva, however, is not a paradox as such figures appear in late-Ming syncretic popular literature. Examples include the former high-ranking immortals-turned-bodhisattvas Guanyin, Mañjuśrī, and Samantabhadra from Investiture of the Gods (c. 1620).
7. Updates
Update: 06-04-22
Above, I mentioned that Puti (菩提) is used at least three times to refer to Subodhi, thus stressing the Patriarch’s connection to the Buddhist concept of bodhi (Pāli / Sk: “awakening” or “enlightenment”). There’s actually a fourth usage, appearing in the title of chapter two: “Fully awoke to Bodhi’s wondrous truths / He cuts off Mara, returns to the root, and joins Primal Spirit” (Wu & Yu, 2012, p. 116). The title serves as a double reference to the end of Prince Siddhārtha‘s path to enlightenment. (I explain in this article that the author-compiler of the standard 1592 edition of JTTW likely based Monkey’s early life on the Buddha to make his spiritual journey more familiar to the reader.) As part of the Prince’s meditative journey inward to discover hidden truths, he faces off against the army of the heavenly demon Māra (Mo, 魔), the ruler of the illusionary world of Saṃsāra. But these evil forces are rendered powerless by Siddhartha’s supreme focus of mind and burgeoning grasp of reality. He shortly thereafter achieves enlightenment (a.k.a. bodhi) (Beal, 1883, pp. 156-163). Likewise, thanks to (Su)Bodhi’s guidance, Sun Wukong is able to also stop Mara and achieve immortality.
This free association between Buddhist (bodhi/Mara/returning to the root) and Daoist (primal spirit) concepts was common place in Ming-era religious literature. Darga (2008) explains:
Comparing the development of the embryo to the revelation of Buddhahood is typical of neidan texts of the Ming period. For instance, the Xingming guizhi (Principles of Balanced Cultivation of Inner Nature and Vital Force) uses Body of the Law (fashen 法身, dharmakāya) as a synonym for shengtai. The birth of the embryo represents the appearance of the original spirit (yuanshen 元神) or Buddhahood and is understood as enlightenment (p. 884).
Therefore, the Monkey King’s immortality is synonymous with the Buddha’s enlightenment. And since Subodhi is key to Sun’s spiritual achievement, and given the Patriarch’s demonstrated connection to Buddhism in the novel, I’d like to further suggest that the character is the original disciple Subhūti. After all, he still lives in India like his namesake.
Despite all of the overwhelming evidence for the Patriarch’s connection to Buddhism, someone might point out that the novel refers to him as a “Spirit Immortal” (shenxian, 神仙) (for example). The Anthology of the Transmission of the Dao from Zhongli Quan to Lü Dongbin (Zhong Lü Chuan Dao Ji, 鐘呂傳道集, c. late-Tang) explains that this is the fourth of five kinds of transcendents [12] who has cast off the mortal body (per the methods outlined above) to enjoy a life free from the dust of the world (Wong, 2000, p. 29; see also here). But making this distinction in the face of Ming syncretism amounts to little more than arguing semantics. As we’ve seen, this philosophy equates achieving immortality with enlightenment. And Subodhi’s description above as having “no end and no birth” (busheng bumie, 不生不滅) embodies that, for he has both the Daoist elixir and the Buddha-mind and has thus broken free of the wheel of rebirth.
Taking a page from the Daoist Bodhisattvas of Investiture of the Gods (Fengshen yanyi, 封神演義, c. 1620), perhaps Subodhi/Subhūti was an immortal recruited by the Buddha, or the Buddhist disciple trained under the former high-ranking immortals-turned-bodhisattvas Guanyin, Mañjuśrī, and Samantabhadra. Knowing different paths to divinity would make him a more affective teacher and bodhisattva.
Here is a welcoming, modern image of Subhūti (fig. 9). The top line reads “The Honored Monk Subhūti’s Understanding of Emptiness is Number One” (Xuputi zunzhe jiekong diyi, 须菩提尊者解空第一). I love the golden halo.
Subodhi is alluded to in Investiture of the Gods (c. 1620). It reproduces a poem about the sage from JTTW chapter one (section 2.3). The original reads:
A Golden Immortal of Great Awareness and of great ken and purest mien,
Master Bodhi, whose wondrous appearance like the West
Had no end or birth by work of the Double Three.
His whole spirit and breath were with mercy filled.
Empty, spontaneous, it could change at will,
His Buddha-nature able to do all things.
The same age as Heaven had his majestic frame.
Fully tried and enlightened was this grand priest (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 114).
Chapter 61 of Investiture of the Gods reproduces the poem with only minor changes (indicated in red):
A Golden Immortal of Great Awareness and timelessness, [13] Dharma Master Bodhi of the wondrous West
Had no end or birth by work of the Double Three.
His whole spirit and breath were with mercy filled.
Empty, spontaneous, it could change at will,
His Buddha-nature able to do all things.
The same age as Heaven had his majestic frame.
Fully tried and enlightened was this grand priest (emphasis mine). [14]
It goes on to associate the poem with a Buddhist deity known as “Person of the Way, Cundī” (Zhunti daoren, 準提道人) (fig. 10). This figure is traditionally considered a multi-armed, female bodhisattva with a strong connection to the Cundā Dhāraṇī, a power-bestowing mantra (Buswell & Lopez, 2014, p. 204). Therefore, it appears that the author was trying to provide an origin for Subodhi (likely based on “提” (ti) appearing in both character’s names). Afterall, the novel is often considered a sequel to JTTW because it reveals the origins of many secondary characters (Li Jing, Nezha, Muzha, Erlang, etc.). However, it’s important to remember that Investiture of the Gods is still a separate novel by a different author. So, any events therein should NOT be considered canon for JTTW. Besides, the latter work clearly establishes a link between Subodhi and the historical Subhūti.
Fig. 10 – Person of the Way, Cundī (top right) fighting against a rogue immortal (lower left) (larger version). From a modern manhua comic book. Image found here.
Update: 06-09-22
It turns out that Subodhi is not the invention of the author-compiler [15] of the standard 1592 edition of JTTW. He appears in the earlier “Zhu edition” of the novel, a.k.a. Chronicle of Deliverances in Tang Sanzang’s Journey to the West (Tang Sanzang Xiyou shi e zhuan, 唐三藏西遊释厄傳) by Zhu Dingchen (朱鼎臣). [16] The following quote indicates the differences between the Zhu edition (red) with the 1592 edition (black):
With solemnity the Monkey King set his clothes in order and followed the boy into the depths of the cave. They passed rows and rows of lofty towers and huge alcoves, of pearly chambers and carved arches. After walking through innumerable quiet chambers and empty studios, they finally reached the base of the green jade platform. Patriarch Subodhi was seen seated solemnly on the platform, with thirty lesser immortals standing below in rows. He [It] was truly a realm of immortals. Let’s listen to the explanation in the next chapter. (emphasis mine)
[Poem describing Master Subodhi. See above for translation. The Zhu version has a typo in the line “Grand priest” (“大怯師” instead of “大法師”).]
The Zhu version is comprised of ten scrolls (juan, 卷) with three to ten subsections each. These subsections differ from the chapter layout of the 1592 edition. For example, subsections one to three and four to five respectively correspond to chapters one and two of the 1592 edition (Koss, 1981, pp. 14-15). It’s interesting to note that the above poem caps the first subsection of scroll one. This is why it ends with: “Let’s listen to the explanation in the next chapter” (qieting xiahua fenjie, 且聽下回分解).
Update: 06-10-22
Monkey’s religious name Wukong (悟空), or “Awakened to Emptiness,” predates the 1592 and Zhu editions, appearing as early as an early-Ming zaju play. Therefore, I’d like to suggest that the historical Subhūti was chosen as the basis for a master worthy of bestowing this name because of his great knowledge of emptiness, as well as the large role that he plays in the Diamond Sutra (Sk: Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra; Ch: Jingang bore boluomiduo jing, 金剛般若波羅蜜多經; a.k.a. Jingang jing, 金剛經). After all, the scripture “deals with the concept of emptiness” despite never once “employ[ing] the word for emptiness śūnyatā [Ch: kong, 空]” (Watson, 2010, p. 75). [17] Alluding to the sutra makes sense as it was so overwhelmingly popular when JTTW was written that tales of its miracles were eventually compiled during the late-Ming and Qing dynasties (Ho, 2019). So, the people reading the novel would have no doubt recognized Subodhi as an allusion to Subhūti from the scripture.
The late-13th-century JTTW story cycle already presents Monkey as an ancient Daoist immortal with magic powers from the very beginning. Therefore, this element likely played a role in draping the Buddhist master in a thin veil of Daoism to create the Buddho-Daoist sage Subodhi.
Update: 03-13-23
I just learned that the uber popular cartoon Lego Monkie Kid has introduced Master Subodhi in the recent 4th season. The following clip shows him training the reincarnations of Tripitaka, Zhu Bajie, and the White Dragon Horse and apparently the original Sha Wujing (video 1).
Video 1 – Master Subodhi trains new students in Lego Monkie Kid season 4.
Update: 05-15-23
Above in section 2.3, I mentioned how Subodhi’s seemingly paradoxical depiction as a Daoist bodhisattva wasn’t weird as other vernacular literature of the time included such beings:
A Daoist bodhisattva may seem paradoxical, but this concept comfortably fits into the syncretic worldview espoused in late-Ming literature. For example, three well-known bodhisattvas are depicted as former high-ranking immortals in Investiture of the Gods (Fengshen yanyi, 封神演義, c. 1620). These include Guanyin (觀音) as “Person of the Way, Compassionate Ferry” (Cihang daoren, 慈航道人), Mañjuśrī (Wenshu, 文殊) as the “Dharma-Spreading Heavenly Master of Outstanding Culture” (Wenshu guangfa tianzun, 文殊廣法天尊), and Samantabhadra (Puxian, 普賢) as the “Perfected Man of Universal Virtue” (Puxian zhenren, 普賢真人). Together, they later convert to Buddhism and become disciples of the Buddha at the end of chapter 83.
Well, I was happy to learn that Qingyang Temple in Chengdu, Sichuan Province, China (Chengdu Qingyang Gong, 成都青羊宮) houses idols to the three Daoist bodhisattvas from Investiture of the Gods (fig. 11 to 14).
Fig. 11 – (Top Left) The “Perfected Man of Outstanding Culture” (Wenshu zhenren, 文殊真人), a.k.a. Mañjuśrī (larger version). Fig. 12 – (Top Center) The “Perfected Man, Compassionate Ferry” (Cihang zhenren, 慈航真人), a.k.a. Guanyin (larger version). Fig. 13 – (Top Left) The Perfected Man of Universal Virtue (Puxian zhenren, 普賢真人), a.k.a. Samantabhadra (larger version). Fig. 14 – (Bottom) All three idols side by side (larger version). The original Facebook post can be seen here.
Update: 06-09-23
Tumblr user @sketching-shark has drawn a Buddho-Daoist depiction of Master Subodhi based on information in this article (fig. 15).
This is not directly connected to Subodhi, but it’s still interesting. Recall that the Sanskrit name Subhuti is the source for the Chinese name Xuputi/Subodhi. Well, it turns out that the former was a common name in Central Asia. According to this video:
Subhuti/Sophytos/Sophytes was a name that was used by many in this heterogenous region, including those of Iranian, Greek, and Central Asian descent.
Update: 09-25-24
@Ed1171918745 (a.k.a. “Fantasy of Ming”) on Twitter posted a mural by Wang Yixin (王怡新) and Wang Yu (王宇), who I later found out had painted it for the recent video game Black Myth: Wukong. It is a lovely rendition of Subodhi teaching Monkey and his other students painted in the Northern Song Dynasty style (fig. 16).
Fig. 16 – “Riddle in the Pot” (Pan zhong zhi mi, 盤中之謎) by Wang Yixing and Wang Yu (larger version).
Above, I mentioned that Subodhi’s Daoist title is based on that of the Buddha, which was historically given to him by a Chinese Emperor in order to subsume Buddhism under the banner of Daoism. I’ve found the specific historical source mentioning this.
In the first month of spring in the first year of the Xuanhe reign … on the day of Yimao [supposedly February 19th, 1119 CE], an imperial edict was issued:
The Buddha’s title is to be changed to “Golden Immortal of Great Awareness/Enlightenment,” and the rest are to be called “Immortals” and “Great Masters.” Buddhist monks are to be called “Scholars of Virtue,” and they are to change their (religious) clothing and accessories and take family names. (Buddhist) temples are to be called “(Daoist) palaces,” and (Buddhist) monasteries are to be called “(Daoist) monasteries.” Female Daoist priests are to be called “Women of the Way,” and Buddhist nuns are to be called “Women of Virtue.”
I’m delighted to learn that a temple in New Taipei, Taiwan hosts an idol of “Patriarch Bodhi” (Puti laozu, 菩提老祖) (fig. 17). A commenter on the original Facebook post where I found the image asks why he isn’t depicted with Daoist robes. In response, the original poster goes on to explain the Sage’s connection to Buddhism (as noted throughout this article).
I should point out that this isn’t the first religious statue of the Patriarch I’ve come across. I’ve seen plenty of cheap, plastic, cookie cutter-type examples for sale on websites like Shopee and Taobao (screenshot). But this certainly is the first proper idol I’ve seen.
Fig. 17 – The Patriarch’s idol (larger version). He’s holding a golden bamboo rod in one hand and a golden (alms?) bowl in the other. His body is adorned with golden “rice field” pattern Buddhist robes with a red and white inner lining. He appears to be sitting on an azure lion, and the two of them are situated inside of a grotto. Image found here.
Notes:
1) The list of Xuputi variations comes from Soothill & Hodous, 1937/2014, p. 394.
2) Osto (2016) continues:
This conception that certain disciples of the Buddha were actually crypto-bodhisattvas fits in well with the Prajñāpāramitā idea … that a true bodhisattva does not maintain the idea that ‘I am a bodhisattva‘. Though these bodhisattva-disciples are actually bodhisattvas in guise of disciples, as true bodhisattvas, they would never admit to being bodhisattvas, because the false conception of ‘bodhisattva‘ as a truly existent dharma with ‘own-being’ never occurs in their minds (p. 128).
3) The English translation glosses over this, choosing instead to state how the three “not long thereafter” became the aforementioned bodhisattvas (Gu, 2000, p. 1737).
4) Source slightly altered. I’ve made the translation more accurate. I will do this with the rest of Yu’s (Wu & Yu, 2012) translation where necessary.
5) Yu (Wu & Yu, 2012) suggests that this poem is related to the Buddha’s statement that Sun is “only a monkey who happened to become a spirit, … merely a beast who has just attained human form in this incarnation” (p. 70). This alludes to a Confucian hierarchical scale present in the novel where animals are able to attain human qualities through spiritual cultivation. So Monkey’s training under Subodhi allows him to wed his monkey form to the human heart-mind.
8) An example of the Monkey King’s knowledge of Buddhist scripture happens in chapter 93:
“Disciple,” said the Tang Monk, “it may be true that the land of Buddha is not far away. But remember what the temple priests told us the other day: the distance to the capital of the Kingdom of lndia is still some two thousand miles. I wonder how far have we gone already.”
Tripitaka said, “That Prajñā-pāramitā is like a cassock or an alms bowl that accompanies my very body. Since it was taught me by that Crow’s Nest Chan Master, has there been a day that I didn’t recite it? Indeed, has there been a single hour that I didn’t have it in mind? I could recite the piece backward! How could I have forgotten it?”
“Master, you may be able to recite it,” said Pilgrim, “but you haven’t begged that Chan Master for its proper interpretation.”
“Ape-head!” snapped Tripitaka. “How dare you say that I don’t know its interpretation! Do you?”
“Yes, I know its interpretation!” replied Pilgrim. After that exchange, neither Tripitaka nor Pilgrim uttered another word. At their sides, Eight Rules nearly collapsed with giggles and Sha Monk almost broke up with amusement.
“What brassiness!” said Eight Rules. “Like me, he began his career as a monster-spirit. He wasn’t an acolyte who had heard lectures on the sūtras, nor was he a seminarian who had seen the law expounded. It’s sheer flimflam and pettifoggery to say that he knows how to interpret the sutra! Hey, why is he silent now? Let’s hear the lecture! Please give us the interpretation!”
“Second Elder Brother,” said Sha Monk, “do you believe him? Big Brother is giving us a nice tall tale, just to egg Master on his journey. He may know how to play with a rod. He doesn’t know anything about explaining a sūtra!”
“Wuneng and Wujing,” said Tripitaka, “stop this claptrap! Wukong’s interpretation is made in a speechless language. That’s true interpretation” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 4, pp. 264-265)
9) These methods are named after a set of 108 stellar deities from Chinese astrology and popular literature. Sources describe the 72 stars as malevolent, while the 36 are more helpful. I follow the translation of these names from Meulenbeld (2019).
10) Thanks again to Irwen Wong for bringing these examples to my attention.
11) The term wuyi has been used as far back as the third-century CE to refer to Chinese martial arts. It predates the more familiar wushu (武術) by some three centuries (Lorge, 2012, p. 10).
12) The Anthology of the Transmission of the Dao from Zhongli Quan to Lü Dongbin (Zhong Lü Chuan Dao Ji, 鐘呂傳道集, c. late-Tang) states:
The three paths of cultivation are the Lesser Path, the Middle Path, and the Great Path. The five classes of immortals are ghost immortal, human immortal, earth immortal, spirit immortal, and celestial immortal (Wong, 2000, p. 29).
13) The original Chinese characters that I chose to translate as “timelessness” are “不二時” (bu ershi). Soothill and Hodous (1937/2014) define the phrase “二時” (ershi) as: “The two times or periods—morning and evening. Also 迦羅 kāla, a regular or fixed hour for meals, and 三昧那 samaya, irregular or unfixed hours or times” (p. 25). They further define kāla as: “a definite time, a division of time; the time of work, study, etc., as opposed to leisure time” (Soothill and Hodous, 1937/2014,p. 316). Therefore, the Investiture of the Gods poem might be suggesting that the intended character is beyond time.
14) The English version doesn’t even translate the poem (Gu, 2000, pp. 1248 and 1249).
15) The question of Wu Cheng’en‘s authorship is beyond the scope of this article.
16)Koss (1981) performs an in-depth analysis of the standard 1592, Zhu, and Yang editions of the Ming-era JTTW, showing that the 1592 edition is an expansion of Zhu and Yang is a later abridgement of the former. Zhu being the oldest, with portions likely predating 1450, is based on its earlier style phrasing and chapter structure; the use of vernacular language with simplistic two-person dialogue and fewer and less literary poems, suggesting a reliance on oral literature; and Zhu illustrations serving as the basis for many pictures from the 1592 edition.
17) The Diamond Sutra uses an “A is not-A” structure to negate anything and everything that might lead to physical or spiritual clinging. For example, one passage reads:
“Subhūti, [if a bodhisattva] were to say, ‘I am going to save a countless number of living beings,’ then one could not call that person a bodhisattva. Why? Because, Subhūti, there is no such dharma called a bodhisattva. Therefore, the Buddha teaches that, with regard to all dharmas, there is no self, no being, no living creature, no individual.”
“Subhūti, if a bodhisattva were to say, ‘I will adorn the buddha lands,’ he cannot be called a bodhisattva. Why? Because the Buddha teaches that to adorn the buddha lands is not to adorn them. This is called adorning. Subhūti, if the bodhisattvas thoroughly understand that there is no such thing as a self, then the [Tathāgata] declares that they are truly worthy to be called bodhisattvas” (Watson, 2010, p. 90).
“Adorning the Buddha land” refers to the treasure-like splendor of the heavenly paradises created for those saved by bodhisattvas (Watson, 2010, p. 83 n. 20).
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I’ve previously written about the similarities between Sun Wukong and the Water Margin bandit Wu Song. In this article, I would like to explore the similarities shared by the Monkey King and the historical Buddha, Siddhartha Gautama (Ch: Xidaduo Qiaodamo, 悉達多 喬達摩). I know readers are now collectively scratching their heads in confusion and asking, “How in the world are a 6th- to 5th-century BCE Indian philosopher and an immortal monkey spirit from Ming-era Chinese literature similar?” It’s true that the particulars of their stories are different, but I will show that Wukong and the Buddha follow a similar trajectory in their early lives. Both experience a supernatural birth, produce a radiant splendor upon emerging from the womb, spend early years as royalty, feel a sense of shock upon realizing the impermanence of life, set out on a quest to find a means of escaping old age and death, and, finally, achieve this goal through spiritual practices. These similarities suggest that the author-compiler of Journey to the West (Xiyouji, 西遊記, 1592) may have borrowed from the Buddha’s story to make Sun Wukong’s early life more familiar to readers.
For details about the Awakened One’s life, I rely heavily on Acts of the Buddha (Sk: Buddhacarita; Ch: Fo suoxing za, 佛所行讚, 2nd-century), a full-length biographical poem that survives thanks to its translation into Chinese from the original Sanskrit (Buswell & Lopez, 2014, p. 150). Information about Monkey will of course come from the standard 1592 edition of the novel.
See the 06-18-2022 update for another parallel.
The Parallels
1. Supernatural birth
On the day of his birth, the bodhisattva’s mother, Queen Maya, feels the urge to go to the garden of Lumbini. There, following the tradition of sage-kings, the young prince Siddhartha is born from her right side (fig. 1):
Whilst she (thus) religiously observed the rules of a pure discipline, Bodhisattva was born from her right side, (come) to deliver the world, constrained by great pity, without causing his mother pain or anguish. / As king Yu-liu [Aurva] was born from the thigh, as king Pi-t’au [Pruthu] was born from the hand, as king Man-to [Mandhatri] was born from the top of the head, as king Kia-k’ha [Kakshivat] was born from the arm-pit, / So also was Bodhisattva on the day of his birth produced from the right side… (Beal, 1883, pp. 2-3).
Chapter one of Journey to the West describes how an immortal stone atop the Mountain of Flowers and Fruit (Huaguo shan, 花果山) splits open and gives birth to a stone egg, which is transformed into a stone monkey (shi hou, 石猴) by the elements (fig. 2):
Since the creation of the world, it [the stone] had been nourished for a long period by the seeds of Heaven and Earth and by the essences of the sun and the moon, until, quickened by divine inspiration, it became pregnant with a divine embryo. One day, it split open [benglie, 迸裂], giving birth to a stone egg about the size of a playing ball. Exposed to the wind, it was transformed into a stone monkey endowed with fully developed features and limbs (Wu & Yu, 2012, p. 101) (emphasis mine).
As I’ve previously written, Wukong’s birth is likely based on the sage-king Yu the Great (大禹) and his son Qi (啟, “open”) of Xia, who are stated in various sources to have been born from stone. For example, one 4th-century tale states Yu’s pregnant wife transformed into stone out of shame for having seen her husband’s shamanic metamorphosis into a bear. Yu ordered the stone to release his son, and it split open to give birth to Qi (Birrell, 1999, p. 123). The emphasis on the stone splitting open is related to ancient Chinese stories of sage-kings splitting the chest, back, or sides of their mothers upon birth, [1] much like the Buddha is born from Queen Maya’s side. For instance, the Genealogical Annals of the Emperors and Kings (Diwang shiji, 帝王世紀, 3rd -century) writes:
“While traveling up in the mountains she [Yu’s mother] saw a falling star piercing the Mao region (of the sky). Then in a dream, she received and felt it, so upon swallowing a divine pearl and Job’s Tears, her chest split open and she gave birth to Yu at Stone Knob” (Cook & Luo, 2017, p. 101).
While Yu’s mother is not a stone in this case, his birth is effected by a pearl (a type of stone) and happens in a place named after stone. Such tales establish a link between split births and split stone births, thereby placing the Buddha and Monkey into the same broader birth myth category.
Fig. 1 – A stone carving depicting the birth of Siddhartha from Queen Maya’s side (Gandhara, 2nd- to 3rd-century) (larger version on Wikipedia). Fig. 2 – Monkey’s birth from stone by Zhang Moyi (larger version). Found on this article.
2. Radiant splendor
Upon his birth, the Buddha is said to have “shed in every direction the rays of his glory” (fig. 3) (Beal, 1883, p. 3). The source continues to describe this light, as well as the Bodhisattva’s first few moments outside the womb:
His body, nevertheless, was effulgent with light, and like the sun which eclipses the shining of the lamp, so the true gold-like beauty of the Bodhisattva shone forth and was diffused everywhere. / Upright and firm and unconfused in mind, he deliberately took seven steps, the soles of his feet resting evenly upon the ground as he went, his footmarks remained bright as seven stars. / Moving like the lion, king of beasts, and looking earnestly towards the four quarters, penetrating to the centre the principles of truth, he spake thus…” (Beal, 1883, pp. 4-5).
The historical Xuanzang (on whom Tripitaka is based) notes in his travelogue that the Buddha even walks towards the cardinal directions: “After he had been born the Bodhisattva walked seven steps unaided to each of the four quarters … [u]nder each step a large lotus flower sprang up from the earth” (Xuanzang, 1996/2016, p. 158).
Wukong too produces a great light in every direction: “Having learned at once to climb and run, this monkey also bowed to the four quarters, while two beams of golden light flashed from his eyes to reach even the Palace of the Polestar” (fig. 4) (Wu & Yu, 2012, p. 101).
Therefore, both shine their lights in the four cardinal directions.
Fig. 3 – Baby Buddha producing a radiant splendor upon his birth (larger version). Artist unknown. Found on this article. Fig. 4 – Bright beams of light shine from Wukong’s eyes as he bows to the four directions (larger version). From the Japanese children’s book Son Goku (1939).
3. Royal years
Prince Siddhartha (fig. 5) is born into the royal Shakya clan ruled by his father, King Suddhodana (Beal, 1883, p. 1). Shortly after his son’s birth, the king is told by two sages that the new heir is fated to be either a universal monarch or a cosmic sage (Beal, 1883, pp. 8-18). Suddhodana attempts to defy the latter fate by surrounding his son with royal luxury and even finding him a wife with which to have his own son:
‘My son, the prince, having a son born to him, / ‘The affairs of the empire will be handed down in succession, and there will be no end to its righteous government; the prince having begotten a son, will love his son as I love him, / ‘And no longer think about leaving his home as an ascetic, but devote himself to the practice of virtue […] Would that this might lead my son (he prayed) to love his child and not forsake his home; the kings of all countries, whose sons have not yet grown up, / Have prevented them exercising authority in the empire, in order to give their minds relaxation, and for this purpose have provided them with worldly indulgences, so that they may perpetuate the royal seed; / So now the king, having begotten a royal son, indulged him in every sort of pleasure; desiring that he might enjoy these worldly delights, and not wish to wander from his home in search of wisdom (Beal, 1883, pp. 28 and 29).
Following his birth, the stone monkey comes to live with a tribe of primates on the Mountain of Flowers and Fruit. One day, the monkeys and apes decide to follow a stream to its source in the mountain and find a beautiful waterfall. They state anyone who can discover what is behind the blanket of water will be proclaimed their king. The stone monkey takes up this challenge by leaping through and discovers the “Cave Heaven of Water-Curtain Cave” (Shuiliandong dongtian, 水簾洞洞天), a grotto paradise with a stone mansion and enough room for all the primates to live. After he emerges victorious,
Each one of them [the primates] then lined up according to rank and age, and, bowing reverently, they intoned, “Long live our great king!” From that moment, the stone monkey ascended the throne of kingship [fig. 6]. He did away with the word “stone” in his name and assumed the title, Handsome Monkey King [Mei hou wang, 美猴王] (Wu & Yu, 2012, p. 105).
The prince is born into a royal clan and yet never rules, while Wukong achieves kinghood through a test of bravery and leads his tribe for over three hundred years (Wu & Yu, 2012, p. 105). Siddhartha’s lack of authority is of course due to his father’s wish that he indulge in worldly pleasures and forget about leaving to become a sage. But birth tales (Sk: jataka) of the Buddha’s past lives do include several incarnations as rulers, even as a monkey king!
Fig. 5 – A stone carving of Prince Siddhartha as a young man (Gandhara, 3rd-century) (larger version via the Norton Simon Museum). Fig. 6 – The Stone Monkey sits on his throne (larger version). From Son Goku (1939).
4. Shock at impermanence
One day, Prince Siddhartha wishes to tour the land outside his personal palace for the first time in his sheltered life. Not wanting his son to see anything unpleasant, King Suddhodana has the path cleared of the old, sick, and poor and decorated with beautiful canopies, banners, and curtains (Beal, 1883, pp. 30-32). But a deva raja intervenes to initiate the first of the “four signs” (Sk: caturnimitta; Ch: sixiang, 四相; i.e. old age, sickness, death, and monasticism) to cause the future Buddha to pursue a spiritual path that will ultimately lead to his enlightenment (fig. 7) (Buswell & Lopez, 2014, pp. 171-172). The deva raja transforms into an extremely elderly man, and upon seeing the sight, Siddhartha is shaken when his chariot driver reveals that he too will suffer this fate:
The prince greatly agitated and moved, asked his charioteer another question and said, ‘Is yonder man the only one afflicted with age, or shall I, and others also, be such as he?’ / The charioteer again replied and said, ‘Your highness also inherits this lot, as time goes on, the form itself is changed, and this must doubtless come, beyond all hindrance: / ‘The youthful form must wear the garb of age, throughout the world, this is the common lot’. Bodhisattva, who had long prepared the foundation of pure and spotless wisdom, / Broadly setting the root of every high quality, with a view to gather large fruit in his present life, hearing these words respecting the sorrow of age, was afflicted in mind, and his hair stood up right. / Just as the roll of the thunder and the storm alarm and put to flight the cattle; so was Bodhisattva affected by the words; shaking with apprehension, he deeply sighed (Beal, 1883, p. 33).
After seeing the sign of sickness (Beal, 1883, pp. 34-35), the prince witnesses the sign of death:
(Once more) he asked, ‘What is this they carry? With streamers and flowers of every choice description, whilst the followers are overwhelmed with grief, tearing their hair and wailing piteously.’ / And now the gods instructing the coachman, he replied and said, ‘This is a “dead man,” all his powers of body destroyed, life departed; his heart without thought, his intellect dispersed; / ‘His spirit gone, his form withered and decayed; stretched out as a dead log; family ties broken—all his friends who once loved him, clad in white cerements, / ‘Now no longer delighting to behold him, remove him to lie in some hollow ditch (tomb).’ The prince hearing the name of death, his heart constrained by painful thoughts, / He asked, ‘Is this the only dead man, or does the world contain like instances?’ Replying thus he said, ‘All, everywhere, the same; he who begins his life must end it likewise; / ‘The strong and lusty and the middle-aged, having a body, cannot but decay (and die).’ The prince now harassed and perplexed in mind; his body bent upon the chariot leaning-board, / With bated breath and struggling accents, stammered thus, ‘Oh worldly men! How fatally deluded! Beholding everywhere the body brought to dust, yet everywhere the more carelessly living; / ‘The heart is neither lifeless wood nor stone, and yet it thinks not “all is vanishing!” (Beal, 1883, pp. 36-37).
After the Monkey King rules the Mountain of Flowers and Fruit for more than three centuries, he tells his children:
Though we are not subject to the laws of man today, nor need we be threatened by the rule of any bird or beast, old age and physical decay in the future will disclose the secret sovereignty of Yama, King of the Underworld. If we die, shall we not have lived in vain, not being able to rank forever among the Heavenly beings? (Wu & Yu, 2012, p. 106).
The “shock” felt by Prince Siddhartha and the Monkey King upon realizing the impermanence of life is known in Buddhism as Samvega (Ch: yanli, 厭離) (Thanissaro Bhikkhu, n.d.). It’s interesting that Siddhartha is led to the reality of impermanence, while Monkey comes to the conclusion by himself. This is no doubt due to the differences in their lives. King Suddhodana ensures that his son lives a protected life, one free from the woes of the outside world, by surrounding him with luxury and young, beautiful palace attendants. However, Monkey rules the Mountain of Flowers and Fruit for over three hundred years, no doubt witnessing the decline and death of many of his companions, as well as the waning of his own youth. After all, the thought of impermanence would weigh heavy on anyone nearing the end of their life. This conclusion is supported by the fact that, when his soul is taken to hell in chapter three, Monkey learns from the ledgers of life and death that he was fated to die at 342 years old (fig. 8) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 140).
Fig. 7 – Siddhartha experiences the “Four Signs” (larger version). Artist unknown. Fig. 8 – Monkey striking his name from the Book of Life and Death (larger version).From Son Goku (1939).
5. Quest to overcome impermanence
Siddhartha is wracked by constant, obsessive thoughts on the dangers of old age, sickness, and death. After venturing out once more and witnessing poor farmers toiling away in the fields, he proclaims on the spot that he will find some way to oppose life’s suffering. At that exact moment, a deva affects the fourth sign by transforming into a monk (sk: bhikshu), who tells the prince:
Depressed and sad at [the] thought of age, disease, and death, I have left my home to seek some way of rescue, but everywhere I find old age, disease, and death, all (things) hasten to decay and there is no permanency; / ‘Therefore I search for the happiness of some thing that decays not, that never perishes, that never knows beginning, that looks with equal mind on enemy and friend, that heeds not wealth nor beauty, / ‘The happiness of one who finds repose alone in solitude, in some unfrequented dell, free from molestation, all thoughts about the world destroyed, dwelling in some lonely hermitage…’ (Beal, 1883, pp. 49-50).
This influences Siddhartha to forsake his royal life to become an ascetic and search for a means of escape from the evils of old age, sickness, and death. Cutting off his topknot, thus severing his royal ties, the future Buddha sets out into the world (Beal, 1883, p. 68). Siddhartha travels the land studying meditation (Sk: dhyana; Ch: chan, 禪) under various sages, pondering concepts of the body, the mind, the soul, and selfhood for years, and even practicing severe austerities that result in the emaciation of his body (fig. 9). But he eventually forsakes these extreme practices, recovering his bodily strength and vowing to achieve perfect enlightenment via meditation beneath a banyan tree (Beal, 1883, pp. 131-147).
When the Monkey King opines the injustice of impermanence, one of his advisors tells him that only three beings live beyond the reach of Yama:
There are, among the five major divisions of all living creatures, only three species that are not subject to Yama, King of the Underworld.” The Monkey King said, “Do you know who they are?” The monkey said, “They are the Buddhas, the immortals, and the holy sages [shensheng, 神聖]; these three alone can avoid the Wheel of Transmigration as well as the process of birth and destruction, and live as long as Heaven and Earth, the mountains and the streams.” “Where do they live?” asked the Monkey King. The monkey said, “They do not live beyond the world of the Jambudvipa, for they dwell within ancient caves on immortal mountains” (Wu & Yu, 2012, p. 107).
Monkey then pledges to find these great men and women and learn their secret means of escape from Yama’s grasp:
“Tomorrow I shall take leave of you all and go down the mountain. Even if I have to wander with the clouds to the corners of the sea or journey to the distant edges of Heaven, I intend to find these three kinds of people. I will learn from them how to be young forever and escape the calamity inflicted by King Yama” (Wu & Yu, 2012, p. 107).
He sets sail in a makeshift raft and wonders the world for more than ten years, searching the towns and cities of the Jambudvipa continent before sailing to the Western Aparagodaniya continent. There, he is directed to the Cave of the Slanted Moon and Three Stars on the Mountain of Numinous Heart and Elixir Mind (Lingtai fangcun shan, xieyue sanxing dong, 靈台方寸山, 斜月三星洞), an immortal hermitage lorded over by the great Buddho-Daoist Sage Subodhi (Xuputi, 須菩提) (fig. 10). The sage accepts him as a student and gives him the religious name Sun Wukong (孫悟空), or “Monkey Awakened to the Void” (Wu & Yu, 2012, pp. 108-115).
Both tales show that Siddhartha and Monkey set out on their respective quests thanks to outside influences. The devas intervene numerous times to guide the future Buddha’s path to enlightenment, [2] proving that the heavenly realm has a vested interest in his fate. Wukong’s journey is instead influenced by the words of his mortal advisor. In this case, the gods have no interest in the fate of such “creatures from the world below” (Wu & Yu, 2012, p. 102). This of course changes once Monkey starts causing havoc throughout the cosmos.
Fig. 9 – A stone carving of the “Fasting Buddha” (Gandhara, 2nd- to 3rd-century BCE) (larger version). Fig. 10 – The Monkey King becomes Subhuti’s disciple (larger version). From Son Goku (1939).
6. Achieving a means of escape
The heavenly demon Mara (Mo, 魔) fears that Siddhartha will achieve enlightenment and help mankind break free from his domain, the illusionary world of Samsara, and so he leads a monstrous army against the great rishi. But the army is rendered powerless by Siddhartha’s supreme focus of mind and burgeoning grasp of reality (Beal, 1883, pp. 147-156). [3] Continuing his meditation further, the rishi perceives his myriad past lives, as well as the karmic punishment of those who covet or perform bad deeds, being tortured in hell or reborn into lower levels of existence, respectively. He then comprehends that suffering arises from clinging, clinging from desire, desire from sensation, sensation from contact, contact from the six senses, and the senses from consciousness. Finally, Siddhartha comes to the realization that breaking each link (e.g. cessation of clinging will end suffering) will stop old age, sickness, and death and ultimately destroy the endless chain of rebirths (Beal, 1883, pp. 156-163). Having achieved perfect enlightenment (fig. 11),
the Buddha then devised for the world’s benefit the eightfold path, right sight, and so on, the only true path for the world to tread. / Thus did he complete the end (destruction) of ‘self,’ as fire goes out for want of grass; thus he had done what he would have men do; he first had found the way of perfect knowledge; / He finished thus the first great lesson (paramartha); entering the great Rishi’s house, the darkness disappeared; light coming on, perfectly silent, all at rest, / He reached at last the exhaustless source of truth (dharma); lustrous with all wisdom the great Rishi sat, perfect in gifts, whilst one convulsive throe shook the wide earth (Beal, 1883, p. 163).
Journey to the West chapter two tells how Wukong serves as a junior monk for seven years before Subodhi takes him as a close disciple. One night, the sage recites him a poem full of flowery esoteric imagery revealing the secret to Daoist immortality and Buddhahood is the cultivation of chaste semen (jing, 精), breath (qi, 氣), and spiritual energy (shen, 神). The poem has a profound effect on Monkey, for the novel states: “At that moment, the very origin was disclosed to Wukong, whose mind became spiritualized as blessedness came to him” (Wu & Yu, 2012, p. 120). Following Subodhi’s instructions, Monkey performs breathing exercises after midnight (zi, 子) and before noon (wu, 午), resulting in immortality after three years of dedicated practice (fig. 12). [4] I should note that the book borrows from real Daoist practices but leaves much of the process up to the reader’s imagination. As I explain here, historical methods combined the aforementioned breathing exercises with the circulation of chaste semen and spiritual energy to create a spirit embryo (shengtai, 聖胎), or an immortal spirit that is eventually freed from the mortal shell. But in the case of the novel, Monkey’s practice results in an ageless, adamantine physical body, one capable of lifting even cosmic mountains.
Interestingly, the title of chapter two also refers to Monkey overcoming Mara. It reads: “Fully awoke to Bodhi’s wondrous truths / He cuts off Mara, returns to the root, and joins Primal Spirit” (Wu che puti zhen miao li / Duan Mo gui ben he yuanshen, 悟徹菩提真妙理 / 斷魔歸本合元神) (Wu & Yu, 2012, p. 116). The title freely associates Buddhist and Daoist concepts, such as Mara and the primal spirit. This synthesis is explained by Darga (2008):
Comparing the development of the embryo to the revelation of Buddhahood is typical of neidan texts of the Ming period. For instance, the Xingming guizhi (Principles of Balanced Cultivation of Inner Nature and Vital Force) uses Body of the Law (fashen 法身, dharmakāya) as a synonym for shengtai. The birth of the embryo represents the appearance of the original spirit (yuanshen 元神) or Buddhahood and is understood as enlightenment (p. 884).
The Buddha’s biography goes on for pages about deep philosophical concepts on the self, suffering, and reality, showing that the means of his liberation was of the utmost importance. By contrast, as noted above, Journey to the West leaves little space for Wukong’s method of immortality. In fact, the hard won moment that he breaks free of Yama’s grasp is not even mentioned in the novel! [5] So the author-compiler no doubt felt Monkey’s subsequent adventures were far more important. This is understandable considering that, in material as far back as the Song dynasty, Monkey is already an ancient immortal at the beginning of the story.
[Note: See the update below for a seventh parallel.]
Fig. 11 – Siddhartha achieves enlightenment and becomes the Buddha (larger version). Artist unknown. Fig. 12 – Wukong achieves immortality (larger version). Photomanipulation by the author.
A borrowed story?
So did the author-compiler (AC) of Journey to the West base Monkey’s early life on the Buddha’s story? The many similarities discussed above are very suggestive, but if only there was documented evidence of borrowing from other Buddhist personages. And that’s exactly what is found in chapter two. Shao (2006) explains that Wukong’s spiritual intelligence is based on the sixth Chan patriarch Huineng (惠能, 638-713):
[Monkey] sets the stage for a striking display of his unusually profound insight when he announces his intentions to become an immortal. This provokes Subhuti to issue him a challenge by refusing to teach him, for he is “some what different from other people.” Monkey may not realize that the master is trying to gauge his spiritual power, but he rises to the occasion with a genuine clarity of vision: “I have a round head pointing to Heaven, and square feet walking on Earth. Similarly, I have nine apertures and four limbs, entrails and cavities. In what way am I different from other people?”
[…]
[W]e may look to Huineng’s story from which Monkey garners meaning. No doubt, Monkey’s inspired cleverness is modeled on Huineng’s reply to Hongren, the fifth patriarch of Chinese Chan Buddhism, in Huineng’s Tanjing (The Platform Sutra). When Huineng announces his intentions to become a Buddha, Hongren pounces upon him with a poignant reminder that he is “from Lingnan,” a “barbarian,” and therefore cannot become a Buddha. Huineng refuses to be intimidated, however. He holds his own with an unparalleled depth of insight about Buddha-nature: There may be “northern and southern men,” but “the Buddha nature fundamentally has no north or south.” Surely Monkey’s phrasing, his unusual insightfulness, and the quickness and aplomb with which he rises to the challenge are reminiscent of Huineng… (pp. 719-720).
Therefore, if the AC borrowed from the life of Huineng, a Buddhist patriarch, then he certainly could have borrowed from the life of the Buddha. I suggest this was done to make Wukong’s early life more familiar to the reader.
Conclusion
Despite the particulars of their stories being different, the Monkey King and the historical Buddha share six similarities. First, they experience a supernatural birth, both splitting open their mother in the same fashion as ancient Chinese sage-kings. Siddhartha emerges from the side of Queen Maya and Wukong forms from a stone egg birthed by a split rock. Second, they produce a radiant splendor upon their birth. Siddhartha’s body shines as he looks or walks to the four quarters, while beams shoot from Sun’s eyes as he bows to the four quarters. Third, they spend early years as royalty. The prince is born into the royal Shakya clan and Monkey achieves kinghood through a test of bravery. Fourth, they feel a sense of shock upon realizing the impermanence of life. Siddhartha is exposed to the evils of old age, sickness, and death via the “four signs” initiated by heaven. Wukong instead comprehends the fearsome hand of Yama through his observation of time. Fifth, they set out on a quest to find a means of escaping old age and death. The prince travels the land studying meditation and pondering concepts of the body, the mind, the soul, and selfhood. Monkey searches the world for over a decade before he is taken in by the Buddho-Daoist sage Subodhi. Sixth, they achieve their goal through spiritual practices. Siddhartha defeats Mara and achieves perfect enlightenment via intense meditation. Wukong breaks free from Yama/Mara and achieves immortality via Daoist elixir arts. And since the AC borrowed from the life of the Sixth Chan patriarch Huineng, he likely modeled the Monkey King’s early life on the Buddha to make his story more familiar.
Update: 06-12-22
I’ve noticed another parallel while reading two modern biographies of the Buddha.
7. Student prodigies
The Prince is said to have had a great aptitude for learning in his youth: “And now he was brought to learn the useful arts, when lo! once instructed (at one hearing) he surpassed his teachers” (Beal, 1883, p. 24). [6] Wukong has the same talent. When Subodhi teaches him the method for the 72 Transformations, he masters them very quickly:
[T]his Monkey King was someone who, knowing one thing, could understand a hundred! He immediately learned the oral formulas and, after working at them and practicing them himself, he mastered all seventy-two transformations (Wu & Yu, vol. 1, p. 122).
Update: 06-18-22
I’ve written an article that lists a number of surprising parallels shared by Monkey and the Greco-Roman hero Heracles (see section 2).
1) See Cook and Luo (2017) chapter five for more examples of split-births.
2) Other than the “Four Signs”, another example of the devas intervening in Siddhartha’s life takes place shortly after he forsakes the extreme austerities that emaciate his body. He bathes in a holy river but can’t leave the water due to weakness from malnourishment. That’s when a deva pushes down a tree branch, allowing Siddhartha to pull himself to safety (Beal, 1883, p. 144).
3) For example, one passage reads: “Their flying spears, lances, and javelins, stuck fast in space, refusing to descend; the angry thunderdrops and mighty hail, with these, were changed into five-colour’d lotus flowers…” (Beal, 1883, p. 153).
4) The original source says “breathing exercises before the hour of Zi [子, midnight] and after the hour of Wu [午, noon]” (Wu & Yu, 2012, p. 121). However, this is likely a transcription error as Daoist sources cite the opposite, after midnight and before noon (Kohn, 2008, p. 84, for example). Therefore, I have corrected the information.
5) The moment that Monkey achieves immortality is only alluded to in passing:
Suddenly he [Subodhi] asked, “Where’s Wukong?” Wukong drew near and knelt down. “Your pupil’s here,” he said. “What sort of art have you been practicing lately?” the Patriarch asked. “Recently,” Wukong said, “your pupil has begun to apprehend the nature of all things and my foundational knowledge has become firmly established.” “If you have penetrated to the dharma nature to apprehend the origin,” said the Patriarch, “you have, in fact, entered into the divine substance” (Wu & Yu, 2012, p. 121).
6) Nakamura (2000) offers an extremely wordy translation of the above sentence: “When he had passed beyond childhood, he in due time received the initiation ceremony. He mastered in only a few days the various sciences suitable to his standing that [ordinary people] took many years to learn” (p. 90).
Birrell, A. (1999). Chinese Mythology: An introduction. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
Buswell, R. E., & Lopez, D. S. (2014). The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Cook, C. A., & Luo, X. (2017). Birth in Ancient China: A Study of Metaphor and Cultural Identity in Pre-Imperial China. Albany: State University of New York Press.
Wu, C., & Yu, A. C. (2012). The Journey to the West (Vol. 1). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press.
Xuanzang (2016). The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions (2nd ed., R. Li, trans.). California: BDK AMerica, Inc. (Original work published 1996)
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