Tag Herakles

Story Idea: Sun Wukong vs Heracles / Hercules

Jim R. McClanahan 2 Comments

From time to time I like to post a fun blog not directly related to (though sometimes informed by) my research. Regular articles will resume after this entry.

Last updated: 04-08-2026

Readers may remember that DEATH BATTLE! (episode 162) featured a fight between Sun Wukong from Journey to the West (Xiyou ji, 西遊記, 1592 CE, “JTTW” hereafter) and Heracles / Hercules from Greco-Roman myth (fig. 1). The episode begins with the demi-god trekking up a mountain in order to fulfill the 11th of his famous 12 labors: procuring the Golden Apples of the Hesperides (Salapata, 2021), but he instead finds Monkey holding the fruit—food meant for his master, Tripitaka. Heracles demands the apple at sword-point, but he quickly discerns that the produce he’s been given was created from a magic hair. This leads to a deadly confrontation.

As I explain in my analysis of the episode, I initially liked how the fight began because both characters are known for stealing fruit in their respective mythologies (see no. 12 in my article listing their parallels). But in hindsight, this didn’t make much sense for two reasons. First, the golden apples are located in a land much further west than India, the scripture-pilgrims’ final destination in JTTW. Monkey could have easily gone to a location closer to their resting spot. And second, having the heroes meet during their respective adventures creates a temporal paradox since both are active at different times—late-Greek bronze age (c. 3000–1000 BCE) vs the early-Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE). Therefore, in the end, the idea is very forced. But what would be a more natural way for the Son of Zeus and the Great Sage Equaling Heaven to come to blows?

This article proposes a more organic reason for conflict via a story idea based on elements from JTTW, Greek myth, Greco-Buddhist art, and Buddhist literature. But take note that the encounter is NOT meant to be a death battle. Remember that the rest of the journey still needs to take place.

Fig. 1 – The official thumbnail for the episode (larger version). Image found here.

Table of Contents

1. Basis for the Story

My pitch is an offshoot of a previous story idea. It follows the historical Xuanzang (玄奘, 602–664 CE) (on whom Tripitaka is based) on his quest for sutras through Central Asia and India, including years-long periods of study. While the original novel sees Daoism practiced by Chinese-speaking people as far away as the Western Continent (i.e. India), this wouldn’t be the case in the real world. Therefore, changes would have to be made to the narrative, such as the appearance of foreign gods outside of the Middle Kingdom. But as I noted in the original article, it would be a lot easier to include the devas of Buddhism (e.g. Shakra, Brahma, Heavenly Kings, etc.) since the religion was practiced throughout the areas traveled by Xuanzang. This, however, wouldn’t exclude gods from other pantheons, like Heracles.

1.1. Heracles as Vajrapani in Greco-Buddhist Art

Now, I can already hear my readers asking, “How could Heracles possibly be associated with the gods of Buddhism?” Well, the first Greeks arrived in Central Asia and India during the reign of Darius the Great (550–486 BCE) and later Alexander the Great (356–323 BCE). And just like American Gods, these soldiers, merchants, artisans, and farmers brought their religion with them. The convergence of these two cultures eventually resulted in the demi-god appearing alongside Tathagata in the 1st to 3rd century CE Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara (modern day NW Pakistan to E and NE Afghanistan) (fig. 2). The Greek hero takes the place of the Buddha’s loyal protector, the yaksha-turned-dharma guardian Vajrapani (Sk: वज्रपाणि, lit: “Vajra [Thunderbolt] in hand”; Ch: Jingang shou pusa, 金剛手菩薩, lit: “Bodhisattva holding the vajra”). (I have to say that Heracles’ association with the thunderbolt is super fascinating given who his father is.) In fact, the common image of Vajrapani as a muscular, club-wielding deva in East Asia (fig. 3) is directly linked to his depiction as Heracles in Gandharan art!

I won’t go into further detail here since I’ve already taken the liberty of archiving papers on the subject in preparation for this article:

Archive #50 – Heracles as Vajrapani

Fig. 2 – Detail of a stone carving of the Buddha preaching while Heracles-Vajrapani watches over him, Gandhara, 2nd or 3rd century CE, Schist (larger version). He wields a gada mace in his right hand and holds a bone-like vajra-club in the left. Adapted from an image found here. Copyright the Trustees of the British Museum. Fig. 3 – A Tang-era painting of Vajrapani, Dunhuang, Gansu Province, China, mid-9th to early-10th century CE, ink and colors on silk (larger version). Take note of his muscular physique and wispy beard. The vajra-club in his left hand is obscured by his leg. Image found here. Copyright the Trustees of the British Museum. See here for a Tang-era painting of Vajrapani with a visible club.

1.2. Historical Monkey King and Vajrapani Crossovers

Sun Wukong and Vajrapani have technically met before. For example, in the 13th century CE version of the JTTW story cycle, the Great Sage’s antecedent changes his magic staff into the dharma warrior while facing a white tiger spirit:

Monkey Pilgrim [Hou xingzhe, 猴行者] transformed his golden-ringed staff into a gigantic Yakşa whose head touched the sky and whose feet straddled the earth. In his hands he grasped a demon-subduing cudgel [jiangmochu, 降魔杵]. His body was blue as indigo, his hair red as cinnabar; from his mouth a fiery gleam shot forth over one thousand feet long” (based on Wivell, 1994, p. 1189). [1]

被猴行者將金鐶杖變作一個夜叉，頭點天，腳踏地，手把降魔杵，身如藍靛青，發似硃沙，口吐百丈火光。

The titan eventually crushes her with his weapon (Wivell, 1994, p. 1189). The “demon-subduing cudgel” is another name for Vajrapani’s vajra-thunderbolt.

Also, the Monkey King interacts with Vajra warriors (Jingang, 金剛) related to Vajrapani numerous times in the standard 1592 CE JTTW. In chapter 52, his way is momentarily barred by the “Eight Great Vajras” (Ba da jingang, 八大金剛) when he seeks an unannounced audience with the Buddha (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 24). [2] In chapter 58, the eight warriors fail to stop Wukong and his doppelganger when they fight to the Western Paradise seeking Tathagata’s wisdom to distinguish one from the other (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 114). After the Bull Demon King is captured in chapter 61, the Great Sage gathers the “Four Great Vajras” (Si da jingang, 四大金剛) and a host of other gods to confront Princess Iron Fan (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 161). In chapter 77, the four warriors once again momentarily bar his way when he seeks an audience with the Buddha (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 4, pp. 27-28). In chapter 98, the four warriors welcome Tripitaka and his companions, including Monkey, upon their arrival to the Western Paradise (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 4, p. 347). Later in the same chapter, the Buddha charges the eight warriors with transporting the clerics on a cloud to hasten the completion of their mission and return to paradise (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 4, p. 357). But after being ordered to prematurely drop off the pilgrims, leading to Tripitaka’s 81st tribulation, the eight warriors reappear sometime later to complete the trip to China (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 4, p. 369). And finally, in chapter 100, the eight warriors spirit them back to the Western Paradise to receive their otherworldly reward (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 4, p. 380).

In addition, Sun Wukong and Vajrapani are associated with each other in Shaolin Monastery lore. The latter was historically worshiped as the progenitor of their famous staff method. A stele erected by Shaolin abbot Wenzai (文載) in 1517 CE shows that the deity’s vajra-club had been changed at some point to a Chinese staff (fig. 4) (Shahar, 2008, p. 84). Vajrapani’s yaksha-like Narayana (Naluoyan(tian), 那羅延(天)) form was eventually equated with one of the four staff-wielding “Kimnara Kings” (Jinnaluo wang, 緊那羅王) from the Lotus Sutra in 1575 CE. His name was thus changed from Narayana to Kimnara King (Shahar, 2008, p. 87). One version of the story about his creation of the staff method takes place during the Yuan Dynasty‘s Red Turban Rebellion (1351–1368 CE). Bandits lay siege to the monastery, but it is saved by a lowly kitchen worker wielding a long fire poker as a makeshift staff. He leaps into the oven and emerges as a monstrous giant tall enough to straddle both Mount Song and the imperial fort atop Mount Shaoshi, which are five miles (8.046 km) apart. The bandits flee when they behold this staff-wielding titan. The Shaolin monks later realize that the kitchen worker was none other than the Kimnara King in disguise (Shahar, 2008, pp. 87-88). Shahar (2008) suggests that mythical elements of the story were borrowed from the Monkey King’s adventures. He compares the worker’s transformation in the stove with Sun’s time in Laozi’s Eight Trigrams furnace (Bagua lu, 八卦爐), their use of the staff, and the fact that Monkey and his weapon can both grow to gigantic proportions (Shahar, 2008, p. 109). [3]

Therefore, given the above information, it’s not a stretch to have the two heroes meet in a fanfiction.

Fig. 4 – An ink rubbing of the 1517 CE Shaolin stele showing a titanic Vajrapani defending the monastery from rebels (larger version). From Shahar, 2008, p. 84.

2. The Main Story Idea

I’ve added in-text notes in this section to provide readers with extra context. This way, you won’t have to scroll to the endnotes at the bottom.

Buddhist tradition describes Tathagata visiting the devas to preach the dharma (Buswell & Lopez, 2014, p. 235). With the presence of Greeks in Central and South Asia, I imagine he would also visit the Olympian gods who had gained some influence in the region. (See the 03-28-26 update below for more info). These friendly interactions would lead Zeus to assign Heracles to guard the Enlightened One (fig. 5), thereby forming a link between the Greek and Buddhist pantheons (and explaining the aforementioned art). (See the 10-29-25 and 12-02-25 updates below for a detail from Greek myth that supports this idea.)

Here is where one of many changes to the standard 1592 CE JTTW story happens. In chapter six of the original, the bodhisattva Guanyin recommends that the demi-god Erlang battle the Monkey King after the latter had defeated many of heaven’s greatest warriors (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 178). In our tale, she instead endorses the demi-god-turned-deity Heracles-Vajrapani (“HV” hereafter). [A]

A) The Son of Zeus became a full-blown god upon his death. After being exposed to a tunic soaked with poisonous hydra blood, Heracles sought release from the immense pain by jumping into a funeral pyre. But the flaming structure was shortly thereafter struck by lightning, signaling his rise to godhood (Romero-Gonzalez, 2021, pp. 273-276). This, of course, takes place hundreds of years before he becomes the protector of the Buddha.

Fig. 5 – A lovely digital painting of Heracles traveling with the Buddha (larger version). By Jacob King (deviantart). Used with permission. Image found here.

(I don’t consider myself a competent story writer, so please look at the following events and dialogue as conceptual in nature. I’m sure a seasoned writer could do the narrative more justice.)

Similar to the standard narrative, the monkey-soldiers of Wukong’s army notify him that heaven has sent another challenger. He emerges from his cave fully armored (refer to section 2.2. here) to see HV for the first time. Like the original, this might be followed by a poem describing the enemy; in this case, a large, muscular, bearded warrior wearing a lion skin and wielding a flaming vajra-club. (See the 02-19-26 update below for a visual.)

[Insert insults from both sides, including the Son of Zeus calling Monkey a “young rogue,” which naturally pisses him off. [B] HV also describes his godly heritage, which is alien to Monkey since he’s not familiar with the Greek pantheon.]

B) The Great Sage has a habit of claiming to be older than the various gods, immortals, spirits, and humans he meets—whether it’s true or not in the first three cases (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 413, for example). This is exemplified by his self-given nickname “(Maternal/Paternal) Grandpa Sun” (Sun waigong, 孫外公; Sun Yeye, 孫爺爺). But within the story’s timeline, Heracles is indeed hundreds of years older. Writing around 430 BCE, the Greek historian Herodotus claimed that the Son of Zeus lived roughly 900 years before him, placing the demi-god’s life sometime around 1330 BCE. The Greek hero would, therefore, be active around 830 or more years prior to the birth of Wukong (c. 500 BCE).

The pair first take part in a battle of weapons, with Wukong wielding his magic staff and HV his vajra-club. The earth quakes, gods tremble, etc. HV’s powerful strikes push our hero back, causing his staff to painfully vibrate in his hands [C] and create a deafening ringing noise with each hit. Monkey would have a running internal monologue noting the great force of his opponent’s attacks. But despite this, the Great Sage continues driving forward, his weapon hardly leaving the area around HV’s head. [D] At one point, though, a glancing strike from the Greco-Buddhist hero redirects the staff, creating an opening. HV brings his vajra-club down hard on Monkey, but instead of dodging, the latter jerks his head upwards, butting away his opponent’s holy weapon with a loud, metallic bang. [E] The combined forces from the attack and defense might cause destruction to the surrounding area.

C) It may seem impossible for the staff to painfully vibrate in Wukong’s hands, but this indeed happens once in the novel. In JTTW chapter 20, he attempts to bludgeon a tiger-spirit, but when “the rod bounce[s] back up and his hands [a]re stung by the impact” (… 轉震得自己手疼), he learns it was just a big stone covered with the fiend’s sloughed off skin (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 403).

D) The phrase “hardly leaving the monster’s head” is respectively used in JTTW chapters 41 and 67 (here and here) to describe Wukong’s supreme mastery of the staff (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, p. 224; vol. 3, p. 249).

E) The feat of headbutting the weapon serves two purposes. First, it’s a response to this 2020 DEATH BATTLE! fanon wiki script that sees Hercules win by smashing the primate immortal’s head to a pulp with his club. (This attack carried over into the official episode, too.) The ending betrays the author’s extremely limited knowledge of JTTW. In the original, the Great Sage’s head is one of the hardest parts of his body, giving him the confidence to voluntarily take blows to the scalp from even magic, bladed weapons with no harm (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, pp. 314, 383-384, and 408; vol. 2, p. 128; vol. 3, pp. 125 and 373). And two, it highlights the correlation between the invulnerability of Monkey and the Nemean Lion, the first labor of Heracles (March, 2021). Regarding the ending of the fan script, one version of the original mythology sees the Son of Zeus break his olive club over the lion’s head because of how tough its hide is (March, 2021, p. 34).

The novel gives at least three reasons for the Great Sage’s invulnerability. After heaven fails to execute him with bladed weapons and fire and lightning in JTTW chapter 7, Laozi suggests that all of the immortal foodstuff previously consumed by our hero had been refined by his own samadhi fire (sanmei huo, 三昧火), a spiritual flame in the lower abdomen, thus giving him a “diamond body” (jingang zhi qu, 金鋼之軀) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 188). Wukong himself later attributes his adamantine nature to his time in the high god’s furnace. In JTTW chapter 34, for example, he claims to have developed a heart of gold, viscera of silver, a head of bronze, and a back of iron, etc. (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, p. 131). This is refuted in JTTW chapter 75 when he claims to have been born with a head of bronze and iron that was further refined by the furnace (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 374).

Stunned from the powerful blow, [F] Monkey stumbles around holding his head for a moment but raises his weapon in defense when he sees HV approaching. However, instead of attacking, the Greco-Buddhist warrior pauses combat by raising a hand in front of him. “What a skull!” he exclaims while clapping. “And no hint of blood! I reckon your hide is as tough as a monstrous beast I once fought. [G] Truly impressive! And your staff technique is masterful! Who trained you?”

F) This references how the Nemean Lion was blinded by pain after the blow (March, 2021, p. 34).

G) This reference is obvious.

“I have no teacher. [H] I alone trained my mind and body for three years.” [I]

H) This refers to Wukong’s promise to never reveal the Buddho-Daoist sage, Patriarch Subodhi, as his teacher under threat of karmic torture in the underworld (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 125).

I) This is the length of time that he spends as an indoor disciple of Subodhi (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 121).

“A prodigy!” exclaims HV. “But how good is your boxing and wrestling?”

“Ol’ Monkey can handle himself.”

“Let’s see if that’s true. How about we have a friendly sparring match, a test of heroic strength and skill? No weapons and no pesky magic tricks. Agreed?”

Wukong quickly agrees and inserts his shrunken staff into his ear before stripping off his armor from the waist up to match HV’s exposed muscles. HV somehow magically stores his holy vajra-club. The two then square up and launch forward, locking hands and pushing against the other, causing the ground beneath them to tremble and split.

“Extraordinary!” says HV. “How can such a small creature be so powerful?! [J] Were you born of the gods?

J) Many people often forget that Monkey’s normal form is less than 4-Chinese feet (121.92 cm) tall (see here).

“No, I was born from a stone egg.” (See the 02-28-26 update below for an interesting Greek parallel.)

“Oh, like the terrible stone titan and stone goddess! [K] No wonder you achieved this level of strength in such a short time. You have so much raw potential. Why cause trouble for such petty reasons?” [L]

K) These are Ullikumi and Agdistis, two powerful, rebellious, stone-born deities from Western myth (see sections 2.1 & 2.4 here). Referencing the former shows that HV is aware of the Near Eastern pantheon.

It’s interesting to note that lithic births are at least common enough in world myth to have earned a category in Stith Thompson’s Motif-Index of Folk-Literature: “Birth from rock” (T544.1).

L) This refers to Wukong’s rebellion over being given the lowest-ranking position in the Daoist heaven.

[Insert Wukong’s reply. They continue to converse during the battle.]

(This might be a good place to introduce some comedy. HV keeps referencing gods and monsters from other pantheons, making Monkey more and more frustrated:

“What the hell is wrong with you?! I … DON’T … KNOW … THESE … PEOPLE!!! [said in a slow, patronizing voice])

The Great Sage’s internal monologue comments on HV’s diamond grip and the great pressure of his punches. But our hero’s keen eyes notice openings in HV’s defense, allowing him to land blow after blow. However, with each successful attack comes praises from HV. Stinging rib shot. “Good, good!” Cutting elbow strike to the face. “Excellent!” Crushing body slam. “Amazing!”

“Why do you keep lauding me? I’m winning!”

“That would certainly be the case … if we were equals.”

“What do you mean?!”

Smiling, HV explains, “I’ve been testing you! [M] You found all of the openings I offered you, even some that I didn’t intend to because I was apparently too focused on judging your technique. [N] You are a talent the likes of which I’ve never seen before! Thank Father Zeus [or Buddha]! The student I’ve been looking for has finally appeared! Forsake this frivolous rebellion and return with me to the Western Paradise. I promise with my tutelage, you will become one of the greatest warriors of any pantheon!”

M) Perhaps HV decides to test the Great Sage when he sees how well the small primate responds to his opening strikes.

N) It just occurred to me that since the Subodhi appearing in this more realistic version of the story is the historical figure he’s based on, Subhuti, one of the Buddha’s ten principal disciples, the patriarch had to have trained under someone during Tathagata’s lifetime. And considering that HV was the Enlightened One’s bodyguard, perhaps Subhuti learned a little from the Greco-Buddhist hero—apart from other deities, holy men, and warriors, including the Buddha, a member of the Kshatriya class. An interesting implication is that HV would recognize (his or an ally’s) techniques among Wukong’s armed and unarmed attacks or defenses, thereby alerting him that Monkey’s claim of having no master is false. Yet, he would still be supremely impressed that the Great Sage became such a powerful, competent fighter in just three short years.

Fun fact: according to Theocritus, Heracles learned boxing and wrestling from the grim-looking demi-god Harpalycus, son of Hermes (Pache, 2021, p. 10). Apollodorus instead claims his teacher was Autolycus (2.4.9), also a son of Hermes.

“I think you’re full of shit! Ol’ Monkey is whittling away at you, and you’re just trying to talk your way out of it.”

“Well, my offer stands,” HV replies calmly, “but now that I’ve had my fun, it’s time to finish this.”

“Finish what, you bastard?!” Wukong screams in anger. He then unleashes a tornado of powerful punches, kicks, and knee and elbow strikes. But this time they have no effect on the Son of Zeus because he’s no longer playing along.

I’m not quite sure what the next sequence of events would be since I have zero experience choreographing fight scenes, especially between celestial warriors. Perhaps HV displays his true power by running Monkey headfirst through the side of a mountain with an outstretched arm, similar to how the comic book character Omni-Man uses his son, Invincible, like a wedge to slice through an oncoming subway train [warning: gore]. This feat alone would surely cause the primate immortal to question how his opponent’s strength has seemingly increased exponentially. [O] (But upon reflection, this deed seems lacking considering that Wukong himself is shown capable of carrying two mountains while running with great speed. Hopefully someone can suggest a feat for HV that would amaze even the Great Sage.) (See the 02-20-26 update below for a new reason.)

O) This, of course, proves that HV was holding back. It’s important to note that in Buddhist literature, the original Vajrapani is considered the “physical manifestation of the … power … of all the Buddhas” (Buswell & Lopez, 2014, p. 955). Now imagine how much stronger HV would be than Monkey! Apart from his own godly heritage, I guess in my version of JTTW, HV would gain an unfathomable boost in power from serving as the protector and disciple of the Buddha, exposing him to the dharma for centuries—during Tathagata’s lifetime and afterlife following his parinirvana (figs. 6 & 7). This is similar to how the scorpion-demoness becomes so strong in JTTW chapter 55 (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 72). But HV would be well beyond even her.

I guess the Great Sage would hold off on using magic up to this point as a matter of pride, but maybe his hand is forced when faced with such oppressive strength. Like in the original, he might resort to his magic hairs, summoning hundreds of tiny clones in the hopes of overwhelming the Son of Zeus. [P] However, the Greco-Buddhist warrior quickly neutralizes these—possibly by clapping his hands together and creating a shockwave that blows them away [Q] and destroys the surrounding area—pressuring our hero to take other measures. Maybe Monkey frantically cycles through one trick after another but ultimately fails to best his opponent. (See the 10-26-25 update below for a detail from Greek myth that supports this idea). (It would be fascinating to see how HV deals with Wukong’s three-headed, six-armed war form—surely eliciting comparisons to Geryon.) [R]

To these breaches of their agreement, HV responds with something like, “Magic? You disappoint me.”

[Insert Monkey’s response.]

P) Monkey competes in hand-to-hand combat in JTTW chapters two and 51, and each time he resorts to hair clones when things get out of hand (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, pp. 128-129; vol. 3, pp. 12-13).

Q) The hair clones can indeed be blown away, as shown by the Yellow Wind Demon in JTTW chapter 21 (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, pp. 409-410).

R) Thank you to a beta reader of this article for reminding me about Geryon. He is sometimes described as having or depicted with three conjoined bodies, complete with three heads and six arms like Monkey (fig. 8) (Finglass, 2021).

Fig. 6 (Top) – A degraded stone carving depicting the parinirvana of the Buddha, Gandhara, 2nd to 3rd-century CE, Schist (larger version). HV is the first person from the left on the bottom row. He holds his vajra-club in one hand and upraises the other in lamentation. He has an exposed torso, showing off his muscles, in place of his signature lionskin. Housed in the British Museum. Adapted from an image found on Wikimedia Commons. Copyright Marie-Lan Nguyen. Fig. 7 (Bottom Left) – Detail of HV (larger version). Fig. 8 (Bottom Right) – Heracles vs Geryon, Attic black figure on Amphora vase, mid-6th century BCE (larger version). Housed in the Musée du Louvre, Paris.  This is an upscaled version of an image found here. Copyright www.theoi.com.

Ideally, given the parallels between Wukong and the Nemean lion—both are fierce mythological animals, have invulnerable hides, can change shape, [S] and fight someone who is/was a demi-god (Erlang vs Heracles)—I would like to see HV maneuver to Monkey’s back and get him in a chokehold, thereby mimicking how the big cat was originally defeated. [T] But instead of killing the Great Sage, he only intends to choke him to unconsciousness. [U] (Again, see the 10-26-25 update below). And to make matters worse, as the primate immortal fades towards blacking out, he by chance witnesses his beloved monkey army being routed and captured by celestial forces, like the standard version (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 182). This causes him to lose heart and flee HV’s powerful arms by changing into an intangible ball of light or gust of wind. [V]

S) Matyszak (2015) states that the lion would sometimes take the form of kidnapped women (that it had presumably already eaten) in order to lure unsuspecting heroes into its cave (pp. 46-47). Dr. Matyszak tells me that “it’s not part of the core myth” but “later Roman and Byzantine authors do mention it” (personal communication, October 17, 2025).

T) I really like the ending of Theocritus’ description of the fight:

[After hitting him over the head with a club,] I threw my bow and stitched quiver to the ground, and before he could recover and turn on me again, I grabbed him by the scruff of his powerful neck. Gripping him firmly, I strangled him with my strong hands, tackling him from behind to stop him scratching me with his claws. Standing on his hind paws, I pressed them hard to the ground with my heels and controlled his flanks with my thighs, until I could lift him up lifeless in my arms and lay him out. And mighty Hades took his spirit (March, 2021, p. 34).

U) Someone might claim that it would be impossible to choke out Monkey since he’s a spiritual being, but it’s important to remember that the novel humanizes supernatural figures in order to make them more relatable. For instance, in JTTW chapter 65, Wukong claims that he will die from the lack of air inside of a sealed Buddhist treasure-weapon if he isn’t soon released (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 217). And he reiterates this near-death experience to Zhu after escaping a few pages later (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 224). Having read that, I think a blood choke would be more dignified and less dangerous method for subduing our hero.

V) Wukong escapes in the form of a ball of light in JTTW chapters 34 and 42 (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, pp. 126 and 241). And he turns into a gust of wind to follow a foe in JTTW chapter 60 (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 140). This could easily be used to escape as well.

A beta reader suggested that I work Erlang and his sworn brothers back into the story. They could track down and capture Monkey. But however the situation is resolved, this would lead to the events of the original story: the Great Sage’s failed execution, his sentence to Laozi’s furnace, his escape and wager with Buddha, his imprisonment beneath Five Elements Mountain, and his eventual release to go on the journey. And since Wukong comes into contact with Erlang once more and the Vajra warriors several times in the standard version, [W] he would likely meet HV again during the pilgrimage. The Son of Zeus might even comment on his positive change in character as Tripitaka’s disciple and protector.

W) The Great Sage meets Erlang again in chapter 63 (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, pp. 187-191). Regarding Vajra warriors, refer back to section 1.2.

Two beta readers were disappointed by the ending because they didn’t think HV could defeat the Great Sage. As a longtime uberfan of Monkey myself, I understand that sentiment, but they should remember that this is not just the Heracles of Greco-Roman myth, who’s immensely powerful in his own right, able to support the sky on his shoulders in one myth (Salapata, 2021, p. 152). He’s an amalgam of the Greek hero and the Buddha’s protector. Recall that Vajrapani is considered the embodiment of all the Tathagatas’ power (refer back to note O). And If the dharma of one Buddha can easily defeat Monkey (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, pp. 195 and 199), a being endowed with the power of ALL of them should have no problem subduing our favorite primate immortal.

I feel like this idea has so much potential, but I lack the experience or talent to do it justice here. Hopefully, readers will see through the lackluster description to understand the promise of greatness that it holds. Please let me know if anyone is interested in fleshing out this tale.

Lastly, while finishing this section, I came upon a fun coincidence: ancient Greco-Buddhist stone carvings with HV, the Buddha, and … a monkey (figs. 9 & 10)! They depict “The Monkey Offering Honey (to the Buddha)” (Ch: Mihou xianmi, 獼猴獻蜜; Mihou fengmi, 獼猴奉蜜), a tale from the Tathagata’s lifetime where a primate selflessly offered him honey but shortly thereafter fell and died via drowning or impalement. Thankfully, though, the primate was reborn into the deva realm (Van der Geer, 2022, pp. 439-440). [W] The carvings depict HV watching over the Enlightened One during this event.

Perhaps, based on these images, HV tells Wukong at some point during their confrontation that he reminds him of someone from the past. (Fanfic theory: could the Great Sage be a reincarnation?)

W) The historical Xuanzang mentions a version of this story where the primate is later reborn as a human (Li, 1996/2017, p. 106). He adds that the area where the offering originally happened hosts images of monkeys (mihou xingxiang, 獼猴形像) next to a water tank or pond supposedly dug by a group of them for the Enlightened One (Li, 1996/2017, p. 184). [4]

Fig. 9 (Left) – Detail of a stone doorway fragment with two stacked carvings illustrating “The Monkey Offering Honey (to the Buddha)” story, Gandhara, 1st to 3rd-century CE, Schist (larger version). The upper scene portrays the primate asking for a bowl, while the lower depicts the offering of honey. HV is present in both: first from the left on the top and first from the right on the bottom. He lacks his beard and lionskin but wields his signature weapon. The extra person photobombing the lower scene may be Ananda. Fig. 10 (Right) – The full stone doorway fragment portraying various events from the Tathagata’s life (larger version). Housed in the Guimet Museum, Paris, France. Adapted from an image found on Wikimedia Commons. Copyright Marie-Lan Nguyen. 

3. An Idea for a Sequel

A continuation of the story would open where the original leaves off: after the scripture-pilgrims are elevated in spiritual rank, Tathagata charges HV with escorting the Victorious Fighting Buddha (i.e. Sun Wukong; fig. 11) through the Greek world-system. Imagine the kind of adventures Monkey would have as a Buddha interacting with Classical gods and monsters! It would definitely be a great way of introducing East Asian people to the wonders of Greek myth.

I really like the idea of HV visiting his old pantheon as his vajra is analogous to Zeus’ thunderbolt. Seeing a father-son lightning competition would be great!

Also, as I’ve discussed elsewhere, Wukong and Poseidon could bond over their shared love of horses.

Fig. 11 – Wukong as the Victorious Fighting Buddha (larger version). Imagery based on the iconography of the historical Yuddhajaya Buddha. Art by NingadudeXx.

3.1. Commissioned Art

I have commissioned some illustrators to draw Monkey in ancient Greek style as an experiment to see what he might look like through the lens of Hellenistic artisans.

Fig. 12 – The Victorious Fighting Buddha (larger version). Pencil, fineliners, and alcohol markers on paper. Art by tr0chanter (Instagram and Twitter).

Fig. 13 – Heracles vs Monkey (larger version). Pencil and markers on paper. Art by Dario Virga (Onibotokemaru on Instagram), a friend of the blog. Each character is labeled with their name in Greek. Heracles is “Ἡρακλῆς,” while the Great Sage is “Pithekos” (πῐ́θηκος), meaning “ape, monkey, trickster, or dwarf.” Wukong’s Greek name is very fitting. It’s also part of the modern scientific name for Old world monkeys (Cercopithecoidea).

Fig. 14 – Heracles vs Sun Wukong (larger version). Digital. Art by Jacob King (Twitter, Instagram, Tumblr). I love the cracks.

4. Possible Fanfiction

I can already predict fanfiction set in an alternate timeline where Monkey accepts HV’s offer to become his teacher. The Son of Zeus would spend time instructing Wukong on advanced techniques of boxing, wrestling, and weapons. This, of course, would be taught in tandem with spiritual cultivation. The training might be in preparation for a fighting tournament between the disciples of gods from all pantheons, kind of like Record of Ragnarok (Jp: Shūmatsu no Warukyūre, 終末のワルキューレ; lit. “Doomsday Valkyrie”; fig. 15). The contestants could be fighting for permission to start their own pantheon, thereby becoming a “Sky Father” (Sk: Dyaus-pitr, द्यौष्पितृ; Ch: Tianshang fuqin, 天上父親). Maybe the long-established Sky Fathers share some of their divine spark to kickstart the new world-system.

I REALLY like this idea, but it wouldn’t work for my own purposes since, as stated above, Wukong would still need to go on the journey.

Perhaps the prize could be the chance to help mankind since one of the reasons that Tripitaka is asked to quest for sutras is because they will help free untold numbers of orphaned souls from the torments of hell (see JTTW chapters 11 and 12). Therefore, the tournament would essentially be a contest to see who will be the Tang Monk’s protector. I don’t really like this idea, but it at least supports the original narrative. The Great Sage would win, of course, but he has to agree to have his extraordinary powers (and memories of the tournament) sealed as a test of his resolve or devotion. And his subsequent enlightenment would be the reward for his great deeds performed on the journey.

Fig. 15 – Promotional art for Record of Ragnarok (larger version). Image found here.

5. Updates

Update: 10-11-25

I’ve seen people claim online that Sun Wukong would easily defeat Heracles because the latter’s feats are not as grand as the former. To this, I counter that the deeds of both heroes shouldn’t be compared, for they serve difference purposes. I don’t know of any feats of speed for Heracles, but Monkey’s famous ability to fly 108,000 li (33,554 mi / 54,000 km) in a single cloud somersault is an allegory for instant enlightenment (as explained in section III here). [5] And his feat of carrying two Buddhist mountains on his shoulders is likely an allegory for the Great Sage “supporting” the religion by protecting his master on the quest for sutras (as I suggest here). The deeds of Heracles, however, were probably meant as actual displays of brute strength. For instance, ancient Greek men on lion hunts may have drawn inspiration and courage from the demi-god’s defeat of the Nemean Lion. [6]

Update: 10-26-25

Above, I wrote that “[m]aybe Monkey frantically cycles through one trick after another” in a failed bid to win, and I later added, “I would like to see HV maneuver to Monkey’s back and get him in a chokehold.” Well, I’m happy to report that I’ve found a mythic way to combine these. The Bibliotheca of Pseudo-Apollodorus describes Heracles’s grip tiring out a shape-shifting sea god:

And going on foot through Illyria and hastening to the river Eridanus he came to the nymphs, the daughters of Zeus and Themis. They revealed Nereus to him, and Hercules seized him while he slept, and though the god turned himself into all kinds of shapes, the hero bound him [with his arms (fig. 16)] and did not release him till he had learned from him where were the apples and the Hesperides (2.5.11).

Matyszak (2015) calls this binding a “Herculean head-lock” (p. 150). Therefore, in our story, Wukong cycles through all manner of transformations but can’t break free from HV’s grip! Then he loses heart and flees when he sees his children captured (as mentioned previously).

Fig. 16 – Heracles wrestling Nereus/Triton (larger version). From an 1894 drawing of a circa 550 BCE Attic Black-figure Kylix. Image found on Wikimedia Commons. For the original, see here.

Update: 10-29-25

I’ve also found a mythic reason for why Heracles would be sent away from Olympus to protect Buddha. Matyszak (2015) explains that the Son of Zeus didn’t want to become an official member of the Twelve Olympians because this would have forced someone out of the group:

Some felt that the mighty deeds of Hercules entitled him to the status of a full Olympian God. However, the number of Olympians was limited to the sacred number of twelve, and in a rare moment of diplomacy Hercules declined to take an honour that would have first to be stripped from someone else. (Dionysus, the God of Wine was less bashful. He bumped Hestia, Goddess of the Home, off the Olympian high table when his time came to be made divine.) (p. 200)

So instead of taking an Olympian’s spot, Heracles decides to accept a position within the Buddhist pantheon as the Tathagata’s protector.

Update: 12-02-25

I have found the specific passage alluded to by Matyszak (2015) in the previous update. In book four of his Library of History (c. 60 to 30 BCE), Diodorus Siculus writes:

[4.39.4] They report of Heracles further that Zeus enrolled him among the twelve gods but that he would not accept this honour; for it was impossible for him thus to be enrolled unless one of the twelve gods were first cast out; hence in his eyes it would be monstrous for him to accept an honour which involved depriving another god of his honour (source).

Update: 02-19-26

In March 2023, Twitter user @LinJKai posted a lovely 18 x 24-inch (45.72 x 60.96 cm) digital painting titled “Hercules as Vajrapani” (fig. 17). It depicts HV, the 12 labors, and various Greek gods in Tibetan thangka style. I adore this so much! I’d love to commission a physical copy.

Fig. 17 – @LinJKai’s painting of HV (larger version).

Update: 02-20-26

I originally couldn’t think of a feat of strength for HV that would outdo Monkey, but something has come to mind. In JTTW chapter 33, a demon uses the “Magic of Moving Mountains and Pouring Out Oceans” (Yishan daohai fashu, 移山倒海法術) to drop two holy landmasses on Monkey in the hope of incapacitating him. This does nothing to slow him down, though, so the fiend drops a third peak. But since the last ridge, Mount Tai (Taishan, 泰山), is considered the heaviest concept in Chinese philosophy, it instantly overpowers the Great Sage’s strength and pins him to the earth (see this article).

Now, imagine that Wukong uses the same magic to call up a column of mountains, perhaps capped with Mt. Tai, overhead (fig. 18), but not even this is enough to stop the Buddha’s protector. The Greco-Buddhist hero would continue to fight as if nothing is pressing down on him. This would surely frighten Monkey.

I like this because the Great Sage’s defeat in chapter 33 would thus be a call back to the punishment that he tried and failed to dish out during his fight with HV.

Fig. 18 – Imagine that the column of mountains above HV’s head looks something like this pile of stones (larger version). Image found here.

Update: 02-25-26

While writing the original article, I feared that I mischaracterized Heracles as being jovial with Wukong in what should have been a tense situation. However, I’ve found info that supports this. Galinsky (1972) explains:

Being close to the people as he was, Hesiod also portrayed Herakles as the folksy, jolly good fellow. The few fragments that have been preserved of the Wedding of Ceyx give us some indication of this. One of the main subjects of the poem was the wedding-feast of Ceyx and Alcyone at which Herakles intervened. He crashed the party, justifying himself with jovial magnificence: ‘Of their own accord good men betake themselves to good men’s feasts.’ This phrase became so proverbial that it was quoted, among others, by Plato in the Symposium. The remark shows that Hesiod attributed to Herakles the quality, which he undoubtedly found in the folktales, of taking himself lightly, and it kept our hero from becoming too lofty and untouchable. Much of the rest of the poem seems to have been concerned with Herakles’ prodigious appetite, a theme on which the comic poets were to seize with so much glee. Having stilled his hunger, Herakles entertained the party by proposing several riddles (p. 16-17).

Update: 02-28-26

Regarding the original DEATH BATTLE! episode, it’s interesting to note that Heracles has previously fought and killed a monstrous opponent born from an egg, just like Sun Wukong. Ibycus (6th century BCE) records the Greek hero saying: “I slew the white-horsed lads, the children of Molione, of the same age, equal-headed, single-bodied, both born in a silver egg” (Bowra, 1961, p. 245).

Update: 03-28-26

Above, I wrote, “With the presence of Greeks in Central and South Asia, I imagine he [Buddha] would also visit the Olympian gods who had gained some influence in the region.” Well, I’ve thought of a way to connect the structures of the mythic Greek and JTTW universes:

I’ve previously discussed how the novel is set in the Buddhist disc-world system—i.e. a flat earth (see below). It’s interesting to note that the archaic Greeks also believed in a flat earth. The wonderful Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology explains:

As viewed from their perspective, as people who lived on the edge of a land mass, it might naturally have appeared to take the form of a circular disc, more or less level except were hills or mountains rose up from it, capped by the immense roof or dome of the sky. On the one side the sun and stars could be seen rising above the horizon, while on the other they disappeared at their setting; and since they always rose on the same side, in the east, they must presumably have made their way back again, either under the ground or by some other hidden route. It was imagined that the outermost boundary of this disc of the earth was formed by the stream of Ocean (Oceanos), which was not an ocean in the modern sense but a great river flowing in a circle around the edges of the earth. The sky was envisioned as a substantial roof or, later, dome sometimes said to be made of bronze or iron, which rose to a considerable, though not immeasurable, height above the earth. Zeus and the higher gods could be imagined as residing in the sky itself, or else on the summit of Mt Olympos in north-eastern Greece, hence their familiar name of Olympian gods. If one could pile three large mountains one above another, as the gigantic Aloadai set out to do when they revolted against the gods …, it would be sufficient to form a ladder to heaven (Hard, 2020, p. 17).

Heracles has a few connections to Ocean. [7]

Now, imagine that the purview of the Olympian gods and the borders of their disc-world (fig. 19) expand as Greeks traveling eastward bring their faith with them to Central and South Asia. This would allow the Greek cosmos to eventually overlap with the Buddhist realm (fig. 20). (The reverse would be true for westward-traveling Buddhists.) The result would look sort of like a Venn diagram, with the double-pointed oval in the middle indicating where the two realms intersect on our Earth.

Fig. 19 (Left) – A reconstruction of the Greek world based on the writings of Homer (larger version). The landmass is surrounded by the god Ocean. From Atlas of Ancient & Classical Geography (1928, plate 1). Fig. 20 (Right) – A diagram of the Buddhist cosmos (larger version). Mt. Sumeru is flanked by a continent and two islands on each of its four sides. The land is also surrounded by water; in this case, four great oceans. Adapted from Buswell & Lopez (2014, p. xxxii).

I should point out that JTTW changes the traditional structure of the Buddhist cosmos by placing China in the Southern Continent and moving India to the Western Continent (refer back to this article). Therefore, the western portion of the expanding Greek cosmos would more easily line up with the Buddhist cosmos.

Update: 04-08-2026

There is an interesting indirect connection between Wukong and Heracles by way of literature and religious iconography. I’ve previously written about Monkey’s noncanonical daughter, Yuebei xing (月孛星, “Moon Comet Star”) from Journey to the South (Nanyou ji, 南遊記, c. 1570s-1580s), who carries a magic skull with the power to kill even immortals. The historical deity on which she is based has human female and yaksha-like male forms, both of which carry a sword and severed head. This male version has a striking similarity to Arabo-Persian depictions of al-Mirrīkh (Ares/Mars), and the iconography of the latter is believed to be based on a constellation of the Greek demi-god Perseus holding the severed head of Medusa. Perseus is the great-grandfather of Heracles. [8]

See my article on the literary Yuebei xing.

Yuebei xing, Daughter of the Monkey King

Notes:

1) Translation changed slightly. Although the English reads “a hundred yards,” the original Chinese says “100 zhang” (bai zhang, 百丈). One zhang is ten Chinese feet, or roughly 10.43 ft (3.18 m) (Jiang, 2005, p. xxxi). Therefore, 100 zhang would be 1,043 ft (314 m).

2) Yu (Wu & Yu, 2012) translates jingang (金剛) as “Diamond Guardians” (vol. 3, p. 24, for example). I’m changing it to just Vajra since the term can mean both “lightning” and “diamond.” I don’t want to confuse anyone.

3) Yes, this information comes from Wikipedia, but I’m the one who originally added it under the screenname “Ghostexorcist.” See this edit history, for example.

4) The English translation just says “tank” (Li, 1996/2017, p. 184), but the original Chinese word chi (池) can also mean “pond.”

5) The li (里) is a Chinese measurement of distance. English works usually translate it as “mile.” However, it equals roughly 1/3rd of a mile or 1/2 of a kilometer.

6) Herodotus mentions mountain lions attacking the caravan camels of Xerxes on his route through Greece (The Histories, 7.125–126). If such thing routinely happened to local travelers, this would have affected regular lion hunts. And this 16th-century BCE Minoan blade suggests that lion hunts go back centuries.

7) Heracles uses the Sun-God‘s goblet in order to sail Ocean to the destination of his tenth labor (Bibliotheca, 2.5.10). However, according to Pherecydes, “Ocean, to make trial of him, caused the goblet to heave wildly on the waves. Herakles was about to shoot him with an arrow; and the Ocean was afraid, and bade him give over” (Bibliotheca, 2.5.10, n. 7).

Also, the extent of his tenth labor set the limit for human travel:

[S]ince the Pillars or Columns of Heracles—the name usually associated with the twin rocks standing astride the Straits of Gibraltar—afforded the only known connection between the familiar Mediterranean and alien Ocean, they became a vivid symbol of the gateway or barrier between inner and outer worlds. For the most part they stood in the Greek imagination as a forbidding non plus ultra, a warning to mariners not to proceed any further. Pindar, for example, adopts this landmark as a paradigm of the limits to human daring, in his celebrations of victorious athletes:

Now Theron, approaching the outer limit in his feats of strength, touches the Pillars of Heracles. What lies beyond cannot be approached by wise men or unwise. I shall not try, or I would be a fool. (Ol. 3.4–5)

As a man of beauty, who accomplishes feats beautiful as himself, the son of Aristophanes may set forth on supreme, manly endeavors; but not easily across the untrodden sea, beyond the Pillars of Heracles, which that hero-god set in place, as a famed witness of the furthest limit of seafaring. (Nem. 3.20–23)

By the uttermost deeds of strength did these men touch the Pillars of Heracles, an achievement all their own; let none pursue valor any farther than that. (Isthm. 4.11–14)

In these passages Pindar measures the prowess of his athlete patrons in geographic terms, seeing their victories as journeys into distant space; but these journeys must end, he insists, before they enter the forbidden realm of Ocean. The Pillars have here come to stand for the boundary of the human condition itself: To pass beyond them is the prerogative of god alone, or of mythic figures like Heracles who manage to bridge the human and divine (Romm, 1992, pp. 17-18).

8) Perseus had several children, but I will only present the human line that leads to our hero: Perseus (great-grandfather) ⇒ Electryon (grandfather) ⇒ Alcmena/Alcmene (mother) ⇒ Heracles (Bibliotheca, 2.4.5 & 2.4.8).

Sources:

Atlas of Ancient & Classical Geography. (1928). London & Toronto: J.M Dent & Sons, LTD.; New York: E. P. Dutton & Co.

Bowra, C. M. (1961). Greek Lyric Poetry from Alcman to Simonides. United Kingdom: Clarendon Press.

Buswell, R. E., & Lopez, D. S. (2014). The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Finglass, P. J. (2021). LABOR X: The Cattle of Geryon and the Return from Tartessus. In D. Ogden (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Heracles (pp. 135-148). United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.

Galinsky, K. (1972). The Herakles Theme: The Adaptations of the Hero in Literature from Homer to the Twentieth Century. New Jersey: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers.

Hard, R. (2020). The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology (8th ed.). London & New York: Taylor & Francis.

Jiang, Y. (2005). The Great Ming Code / Da Ming Lu. Vancouver, Wa: University of Washington Press.

Li, R. (Trans.) (2017). The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions. Berkeley, CA: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research. (Original work published 1996) Retrieved from https://www.bdkamerica.org/product/the-great-tang-dynasty-record-of-the-western-regions/

March, J. (2021). LABOR I: The Nemean Lion. In D. Ogden (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Heracles (pp. 29-44). United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.

Matyszak, P. (2015). Hercules: The First Superhero (An Unauthorized Biography). Canada: Monashee Mountain Publishing.

Pache, C. (2021). Birth and Childhood. In D. Ogden (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Heracles (pp. 3-12). United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.

Romero-Gonzalez, D. (2021). Deianeira, Death, and Apotheosis. In D. Ogden (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Heracles (pp. 266-280). United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.

Romm, J. S. (1992). The Edges of the Earth in Ancient Thought: Geography, Exploration, and Fiction. Princeton University Press.

Salapata, G. (2021). LABOR XI: The Apples of Hesperides. In D. Ogden (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Heracles (pp. 149-164). United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.

Shahar, M. (2008). The Shaolin Monastery: History, Religion, and the Chinese Martial Arts. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press.

Van der Geer, A. A. E. (2022). The Great Monkey King: Carvings of Primates in Indian Religious Architecture (pp. 431-455). In B. Urbani, D. Youlatos, & A. Antczak (Eds.), World Archaeoprimatology: Interconnections of Humans and Nonhuman Primates in the Past. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.

Wivell, C.S. (1994). The Story of How the Monk Tripitaka of the Great Country of T’ang Brought Back the Sūtras. In V. Mair (Ed.), The Columbia Anthology of Traditional Chinese Literature (pp. 1181-1207). New York: Columbia University Press.

Wu, C., & Yu, A. C. (2012). The Journey to the West (Vols. 1-4) (Rev. ed.). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press.

Archive #50 – Heracles as Vajrapani

Jim R. McClanahan 2 Comments

Last updated: 10-04-2025

I’ve previously archived a book about wrathful protectors of Buddhism due to their likely influence on Sun Wukong. One such protector is Vajrapāṇi (Sk: वज्रपाणि), the so-called “Bodhisattva holding the Vajra (Thunderbolt)” (Jingang shou pusa, 金剛手菩薩). This Yakṣa-turned-Dharmapāla is often portrayed in religious art as a muscular, club-wielding guardian of the Buddha. What’s interesting, though, is that this depiction can be traced to representations of the Greco-Roman hero Heracles–Hercules (Ἡρακλῆς; Ch: Helakelesi, 赫拉克勒斯) that passed from Greece into Central Asia and India and eventually to China over a period of several hundred years (Flood, 1989; Hsing & Crowell, 2005; Galinsky, 2020). The Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara (modern day Afghanistan and Pakistan) is an early example of this converging iconography (fig. 1).

I’ve decided to archive three papers on the subject for a few reasons: 1) it’s such a fascinating topic; 2) it compliments two of my previous articles about Monkey and Heracles-Hercules (here and here); and 3) the information will be used in a future story idea pitting Wukong against the demi-god (see the 10-04-25 update below). Said piece will also briefly discuss times when the primate immortal and Vajrapāṇi have crossed paths in historical literature and folklore.

Fig. 1 – Detail of a stone carving of the Buddha preaching while Heracles-Vajrapāṇi watches over him, Gandhara, 2nd-century (larger version). The full image can be seen here. Copyright the Trustees of the British Museum.

1. Archive links

  • Herakles and the ‘Perpetual Acolyte’ of the Buddha: Some Observations on the Iconography of Vajrapani in Gandharan Art (Flood, 1989)

[No abstract]

Click to access Herakles-and-the-Perpetual-Acolyte-of-the-Buddha-Some-Observations-on-the-Iconography-of-Vajrapani-in-Gandharan-Art.pdf

  • Heracles in the East: The Diffusion and Transformation of His Image in the Arts of Central Asia, India, and Medieval China (Hsing & Crowell, 2005)

[No abstract]

Click to access Heracles_in_the_East_Asia_Major_2005_vol.pdf

  • Herakles Vajrapani, the Companion of Buddha (Galinsky, 2020)

[Abstract: Herakles had a continuing and high-profile existence in the east and the crossroads of Asia from the time of Alexander onwards. The Alexander/Herakles portrait and other representations of Herakles appear in Tajikistan, which was absorbed into the Kushan empire. Cultural contact continued with the west throughout the first and second centuries CE under rulers who patronised Buddhism. It is in this context that Herakles, the most popular hero of Greece and Rome, makes his appearance in Buddhist iconography as Vajrapani. In Gandharan art Vajrapani is the Buddha’s faithful companion and protector in scenes of the Buddha’s life from the Great Departure to his death. The paper examines the hybridisation of Herakles/Vajrapani in a number of reliefs and sculptures to demonstrate that this is not a process of borrowing some stylistic details but of considerable familiarity with the Herakles myth. Both Herakles and Vajrapani had many dimensions and their traditions and characteristics had multiple layers, which facilitated their adaptability.]

Click to access Herakles-Vajrapani-the-Companion-of-Buddha.pdf

Update: 08-20-25

It just occurred to me that not everyone is familiar with Heracles/Hercules or Vajrapani, so I have decided to post more info about them.

I’ll start with Heracles. This is an AMAZING resource that I’ve used in a previous article.

  • The Oxford Handbook of Heracles (Ogden, 2021) 

[Blurb: Heracles is the quintessential ancient Greek hero. The rich and massive tradition associated with him encompasses myths of all kinds: quest myths, monster-fights, world-foundational myths, aetiological myths, philosophical myths, allegorical myths, and more. It informs and is informed by every genre and variety of Classical literature. The figure of Heracles opens windows onto numerous aspects of ancient religion, including those of cult, syncretism, Christian reception, the relationship between gods and heroes, and the intersection of religion with politics.

The Oxford Handbook of Heracles is the first large-scale guide to Heracles, his myth-cycle the Twelve Labors, and, to the pervasive impact of the hero upon Greek and Roman culture. The first half of the volume is devoted to the lucid exposition and analysis of the ancient evidence, literary and iconographic, for Heracles’ life and deeds. In the second half, the Heracles tradition is analyzed from a range of thematic perspectives, including the contrasting projections of the figure across the major literary genres and in art; the ways in which Greek communities and even Roman emperors exploited the figure in the fashioning of their own identities and for political advantage; his cult in Greece and Rome and its syncretism with that of the Phoenician Melqart; and Heracles’ reception in later Western tradition.

Presenting, in 39 chapters, the authoritative work of international experts in a clear and well-structured format, this volume provides a convenient reference tool for scholars and offers an accessible starting-point for students.

Click to access The-Oxford-Handbook-of-Heracles-2021.pdf

Next is Vajrapani. I unfortunately don’t know of any dedicated books on the subject, so here are two papers about his presence in Indian Buddhism.

  • Vajrapani in India I (Lamotte, 1966/2003a)

[No abstract]

(Please note that the formatting of this PDF was already wonky when I found it online.)

Click to access Lamotte-–-Vajrapaṇi-in-India-I.pdf

  • Vajrapani in India II (Lamotte, 1966/2003b)

[No abstract]

Click to access Lamotte-–-Vajrapaṇi-in-India-II.pdf

I’ll add more Vajrapani info in the future when I get a chance.

Update: 08-25-25

Here is the entry for Vajrapani in The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism (Buswell & Lopez, 2014):

Vajrapāṇi. (P. Vajirapāṇi; T. Phyag na rdo rje; C. Jingangshou pusa; J. Kongōshu bosatsu; K. Kŭmgangsu posal 金剛手菩薩). In Sanskrit, “Holder of the VAJRA”; an important bodhisattva in the MAHĀYĀNA and VAJRAYĀNA traditions, who appears in both peaceful and wrathful forms. In the Pāli suttas, he is a YAKṢA (P. yakkha) guardian of the Buddha. It is said that whoever refuses three times to respond to a reasonable question from the Buddha would have his head split into pieces on the spot; carrying out this punishment was Vajrapāni’s duty. In such circumstances, Vajrapāni, holding his cudgel, would be visible only to the Buddha and to the person who was refusing to answer the question; given the frightening vision, the person would inevitably then respond. Vajrapāni is sometimes said to be the wrathful form of ŚAKRA, who promised to offer the Buddha protection if the Buddha would teach the dharma; he thus accompanies the Buddha as a kind of bodyguard on his journeys to distant lands. Vajrapāni is commonly depicted in GANDHĀRA sculpture, flanking the Buddha and holding a cudgel. In the early Mahāyāna sūtras, Vajrapāni is referred to as a yakṣa servant of the bodhisattvas, as in the AṢṬASĀHASRIKĀPRAJÑĀPĀRAMITĀ. In the SUVARṆAPRABHĀSOTTAMASŪTRA, he is called the “general of the yakṣas” (yakṣasenādhipati), and is praised as a protector of followers of the Buddha. In the SADDHARMAPUṆḌARĪKASŪTRA, AVALOKITEŚVARA explains that one of the forms that he assumes to convert sentient beings is as Vajrapāni. In later Mahāyāna and early tantric Buddhism, Vajrapāni becomes a primary speaker in important sūtras and tantras, as well as a principal protagonist in them, and comes to be listed as one of the “eight close sons” (*UPAPUTRA), the principal bodhisattvas. In the MAÑJUŚRĪMŪLAKALPA, as leader of the vajra family (VAJRAKULA), he flanks ŚĀKYAMUNI in the MAṆḌALA. In the SARVATATHĀGATATATTVASAṂGRAHA, his transition from “general of the yakṣas” to “the supreme lord of all tathāgatas” is played out through his subjugation of Maheśvara (Śiva). At the command of the buddha VAIROCANA, Vajrapāni suppresses all of the worldly divinities of the universe and brings them to the summit of Mount SUMERU, where they seek refuge in the three jewels (RATNATRAYA). Only Maheśvara refuses to submit to the Buddha. Through Vajrapāni’s recitation of a MANTRA, Maheśvara loses his life, only to be reincarnated in another world system, where he eventually achieves buddhahood. Vajrapāni’s Yakṣa origins continue in his wrathful aspects, most common in Tibet, such as the three-eyed Caṇḍa Vajrapāni. It is in this form that he is part of a popular triad with Avalokiteśvara and MAÑJUŚRĪ known as the “protectors of the three families” (T. RIGS GSUM MGON PO). These three bodhisattvas are said to be the physical manifestation of the wisdom (Mañjuśrī), compassion (Avalokiteśvara), and power (Vajrapāni) of all the buddhas. Vajrapāni is also said to be the bodhisattva emanation of the buddha AKṢOBHYA and the chief bodhisattva of the vajra family. He himself has numerous forms and emanations, including Mahābāla (who may have developed from his early attendant Vajrapuruṣa), Vajrasattva, Vajradhara, Vajrahūṃkāra, Ucchuṣma, Bhūtaḍāmara, and Trailokyavijaya. Vajrapāni is closely related especially to VAJRADHARA, and indeed Vajradhara and Vajrapāni may have originally been two names for the same deity (the Chinese translations of the two deities’ names are the same). Vajrapāni’s MANTRA is oṃvajrapāṇi hūṃphaṭ. He is also known as Guhyakādhipati, or “Lord of the Secret.” The secret (guhyaka) originally referred to a class of yakṣas that he commanded, but expanded in meaning to include secret knowledge and mantras. Vajrapāni is the protector of mantras and those who recite them, and is sometimes identified as the bodhisattva responsible for the collection, recitation, and protection of the VIDYĀDHARAPIṬAKA (p. 955).

Update: 08-27-25

Here is another work about the Greek hero.

  • Herakles (Stafford, 2012)

[Blurb: There is more material available on Herakles than any other Greek god or hero. His story has many more episodes than those of other heroes, concerning his life and death as well as his battles with myriad monsters and other opponents. In literature, he appears in our earliest Greek epic and lyric poetry, is reinvented for the tragic and comic stage, and later finds his way into such unlikely areas as philosophical writing and love poetry. In art, his exploits are amongst the earliest identifiable mythological scenes, and his easily-recognisable figure with lionskin and club was a familiar sight throughout antiquity in sculpture, vase-painting and other media. He was held up as an ancestor and role-model for both Greek and Roman rulers, and widely worshipped as a god, his unusual status as a hero-god being reinforced by the story of his apotheosis. Often referred to by his Roman name Hercules, he has continued to fascinate writers and artists right up to the present day.

In Herakles, Emma Stafford has successfully tackled the ‘Herculean task’ of surveying both the ancient sources and the extensive modern scholarship in order to present a hugely accessible account of this important mythical figure. Covering both Greek and Roman material, the book highlights areas of consensus and dissent, indicating avenues for further study on both details and broader issues. Easy to read, Herakles is perfectly suited to students of classics and related disciplines, and of interest to anyone looking for an insight into ancient Greece’s most popular hero.]

Click to access Emma-Stafford-Herakles-2012.pdf

Update: 10-04-25

I have posted an article that proposes a more natural reason for Sun Wukong to battle Heracles

Story Idea: Sun Wukong vs Heracles / Hercules

Disclaimer:

These have been posted for educational purposes. No malicious copyright infringement is intended. My blog is not monetized, so I am not financially benefiting from posting these. If you enjoyed the digital versions, please support the official releases.

Citations:

Buswell, R. E. , & Lopez, D. S. (2014). The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Flood, F. B. (1989). Herakles and the ‘Perpetual Acolyte’ of the Buddha: Some Observations on the Iconography of Vajrapani in Gandharan Art. South Asian Studies, 5(1), 17-27.

Galinsky, K. (2020). Herakles Vajrapani, the Companion of Buddha. In A. Allan, E. Anagnostou-Laoutides, & E. Stafford (Eds.), Herakles Inside and Outside the Church. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill

Hsing, I.T., & Crowell, W. G. (2005). Heracles in the East: The Diffusion and Transformation of His Image in the Arts of Central Asia, India, and Medieval China. Asia Major, 18(2), 103-154.

Lamotte, É. (2003a). Vajrapāṇi in India (I) (S. Boin-Webb, Trans). Buddhist Studies Reviews, 20(1), 1-30. (Original work published 1966)

Lamotte, É. (2003b). Vajrapāṇi in India (II) (S. Boin-Webb, Trans). Buddhist Studies Reviews, 20(2), 119-144. (Original work published 1966)

Ogden, D. (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Heracles. United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.

Stafford, E. (2012). Herakles. New York, N.Y.: Routledge.

Parallels Between the Monkey King and the Buddha

Jim R. McClanahan Leave a comment

Last updated: 06-18-2022

I’ve previously written about the similarities between Sun Wukong and the Water Margin bandit Wu Song. In this article, I would like to explore the similarities shared by the Monkey King and the historical Buddha, Siddhartha Gautama (Ch: Xidaduo Qiaodamo, 悉達多 喬達摩). I know readers are now collectively scratching their heads in confusion and asking, “How in the world are a 6th- to 5th-century BCE Indian philosopher and an immortal monkey spirit from Ming-era Chinese literature similar?” It’s true that the particulars of their stories are different, but I will show that Wukong and the Buddha follow a similar trajectory in their early lives. Both experience a supernatural birth, produce a radiant splendor upon emerging from the womb, spend early years as royalty, feel a sense of shock upon realizing the impermanence of life, set out on a quest to find a means of escaping old age and death, and, finally, achieve this goal through spiritual practices. These similarities suggest that the author-compiler of Journey to the West (Xiyouji, 西遊記, 1592) may have borrowed from the Buddha’s story to make Sun Wukong’s early life more familiar to readers.

For details about the Awakened One’s life, I rely heavily on Acts of the Buddha (Sk: Buddhacarita; Ch: Fo suoxing za, 佛所行讚, 2nd-century), a full-length biographical poem that survives thanks to its translation into Chinese from the original Sanskrit (Buswell & Lopez, 2014, p. 150). Information about Monkey will of course come from the standard 1592 edition of the novel.

See the 06-18-2022 update for another parallel. 

The Parallels

1. Supernatural birth

On the day of his birth, the bodhisattva’s mother, Queen Maya, feels the urge to go to the garden of Lumbini. There, following the tradition of sage-kings, the young prince Siddhartha is born from her right side (fig. 1):

Whilst she (thus) religiously observed the rules of a pure discipline, Bodhisattva was born from her right side, (come) to deliver the world, constrained by great pity, without causing his mother pain or anguish. / As king Yu-liu [Aurva] was born from the thigh, as king Pi-t’au [Pruthu] was born from the hand, as king Man-to [Mandhatri] was born from the top of the head, as king Kia-k’ha [Kakshivat] was born from the arm-pit, / So also was Bodhisattva on the day of his birth produced from the right side… (Beal, 1883, pp. 2-3).

Chapter one of Journey to the West describes how an immortal stone atop the Mountain of Flowers and Fruit (Huaguo shan, 花果山) splits open and gives birth to a stone egg, which is transformed into a stone monkey (shi hou, 石猴) by the elements (fig. 2):

Since the creation of the world, it [the stone] had been nourished for a long period by the seeds of Heaven and Earth and by the essences of the sun and the moon, until, quickened by divine inspiration, it became pregnant with a divine embryo. One day, it split open [benglie, 迸裂], giving birth to a stone egg about the size of a playing ball. Exposed to the wind, it was transformed into a stone monkey endowed with fully developed features and limbs (Wu & Yu, 2012, p. 101) (emphasis mine).

As I’ve previously written, Wukong’s birth is likely based on the sage-king Yu the Great (大禹) and his son Qi (啟, “open”) of Xia, who are stated in various sources to have been born from stone. For example, one 4th-century tale states Yu’s pregnant wife transformed into stone out of shame for having seen her husband’s shamanic metamorphosis into a bear. Yu ordered the stone to release his son, and it split open to give birth to Qi (Birrell, 1999, p. 123). The emphasis on the stone splitting open is related to ancient Chinese stories of sage-kings splitting the chest, back, or sides of their mothers upon birth, [1] much like the Buddha is born from Queen Maya’s side. For instance, the Genealogical Annals of the Emperors and Kings (Diwang shiji, 帝王世紀, 3rd -century) writes:

“While traveling up in the mountains she [Yu’s mother] saw a falling star piercing the Mao region (of the sky). Then in a dream, she received and felt it, so upon swallowing a divine pearl and Job’s Tears, her chest split open and she gave birth to Yu at Stone Knob” (Cook & Luo, 2017, p. 101).

While Yu’s mother is not a stone in this case, his birth is effected by a pearl (a type of stone) and happens in a place named after stone. Such tales establish a link between split births and split stone births, thereby placing the Buddha and Monkey into the same broader birth myth category.

Fig. 1 – A stone carving depicting the birth of Siddhartha from Queen Maya’s side (Gandhara, 2nd- to 3rd-century) (larger version on Wikipedia). Fig. 2 – Monkey’s birth from stone by Zhang Moyi (larger version). Found on this article.

2. Radiant splendor

Upon his birth, the Buddha is said to have “shed in every direction the rays of his glory” (fig. 3) (Beal, 1883, p. 3). The source continues to describe this light, as well as the Bodhisattva’s first few moments outside the womb:

His body, nevertheless, was effulgent with light, and like the sun which eclipses the shining of the lamp, so the true gold-like beauty of the Bodhisattva shone forth and was diffused everywhere. / Upright and firm and unconfused in mind, he deliberately took seven steps, the soles of his feet resting evenly upon the ground as he went, his footmarks remained bright as seven stars. / Moving like the lion, king of beasts, and looking earnestly towards the four quarters, penetrating to the centre the principles of truth, he spake thus…” (Beal, 1883, pp. 4-5).

The historical Xuanzang (on whom Tripitaka is based) notes in his travelogue that the Buddha even walks towards the cardinal directions: “After he had been born the Bodhisattva walked seven steps unaided to each of the four quarters … [u]nder each step a large lotus flower sprang up from the earth” (Xuanzang, 1996/2016, p. 158).

Wukong too produces a great light in every direction: “Having learned at once to climb and run, this monkey also bowed to the four quarters, while two beams of golden light flashed from his eyes to reach even the Palace of the Polestar” (fig. 4) (Wu & Yu, 2012, p. 101).

Therefore, both shine their lights in the four cardinal directions.

Fig. 3 – Baby Buddha producing a radiant splendor upon his birth (larger version). Artist unknown. Found on this article. Fig. 4 – Bright beams of light shine from Wukong’s eyes as he bows to the four directions (larger version). From the Japanese children’s book Son Goku (1939). 

3. Royal years

Prince Siddhartha (fig. 5) is born into the royal Shakya clan ruled by his father, King Suddhodana (Beal, 1883, p. 1). Shortly after his son’s birth, the king is told by two sages that the new heir is fated to be either a universal monarch or a cosmic sage (Beal, 1883, pp. 8-18). Suddhodana attempts to defy the latter fate by surrounding his son with royal luxury and even finding him a wife with which to have his own son:

‘My son, the prince, having a son born to him, / ‘The affairs of the empire will be handed down in succession, and there will be no end to its righteous government; the prince having begotten a son, will love his son as I love him, / ‘And no longer think about leaving his home as an ascetic, but devote himself to the practice of virtue […] Would that this might lead my son (he prayed) to love his child and not forsake his home; the kings of all countries, whose sons have not yet grown up, / Have prevented them exercising authority in the empire, in order to give their minds relaxation, and for this purpose have provided them with worldly indulgences, so that they may perpetuate the royal seed; / So now the king, having begotten a royal son, indulged him in every sort of pleasure; desiring that he might enjoy these worldly delights, and not wish to wander from his home in search of wisdom (Beal, 1883, pp. 28 and 29).

Following his birth, the stone monkey comes to live with a tribe of primates on the Mountain of Flowers and Fruit. One day, the monkeys and apes decide to follow a stream to its source in the mountain and find a beautiful waterfall. They state anyone who can discover what is behind the blanket of water will be proclaimed their king. The stone monkey takes up this challenge by leaping through and discovers the “Cave Heaven of Water-Curtain Cave” (Shuiliandong dongtian, 水簾洞洞天), a grotto paradise with a stone mansion and enough room for all the primates to live. After he emerges victorious,

Each one of them [the primates] then lined up according to rank and age, and, bowing reverently, they intoned, “Long live our great king!” From that moment, the stone monkey ascended the throne of kingship [fig. 6]. He did away with the word “stone” in his name and assumed the title, Handsome Monkey King [Mei hou wang, 美猴王] (Wu & Yu, 2012, p. 105).

The prince is born into a royal clan and yet never rules, while Wukong achieves kinghood through a test of bravery and leads his tribe for over three hundred years (Wu & Yu, 2012, p. 105). Siddhartha’s lack of authority is of course due to his father’s wish that he indulge in worldly pleasures and forget about leaving to become a sage. But birth tales (Sk: jataka) of the Buddha’s past lives do include several incarnations as rulers, even as a monkey king!

Fig. 5 – A stone carving of Prince Siddhartha as a young man (Gandhara, 3rd-century) (larger version via the Norton Simon Museum). Fig. 6 – The Stone Monkey sits on his throne (larger version). From Son Goku (1939).

4. Shock at impermanence

One day, Prince Siddhartha wishes to tour the land outside his personal palace for the first time in his sheltered life. Not wanting his son to see anything unpleasant, King Suddhodana has the path cleared of the old, sick, and poor and decorated with beautiful canopies, banners, and curtains (Beal, 1883, pp. 30-32). But a deva raja intervenes to initiate the first of the “four signs” (Sk: caturnimitta; Ch: sixiang, 四相; i.e. old age, sickness, death, and monasticism) to cause the future Buddha to pursue a spiritual path that will ultimately lead to his enlightenment (fig. 7) (Buswell & Lopez, 2014, pp. 171-172). The deva raja transforms into an extremely elderly man, and upon seeing the sight, Siddhartha is shaken when his chariot driver reveals that he too will suffer this fate:

The prince greatly agitated and moved, asked his charioteer another question and said, ‘Is yonder man the only one afflicted with age, or shall I, and others also, be such as he?’ / The charioteer again replied and said, ‘Your highness also inherits this lot, as time goes on, the form itself is changed, and this must doubtless come, beyond all hindrance: / ‘The youthful form must wear the garb of age, throughout the world, this is the common lot’. Bodhisattva, who had long prepared the foundation of pure and spotless wisdom, / Broadly setting the root of every high quality, with a view to gather large fruit in his present life, hearing these words respecting the sorrow of age, was afflicted in mind, and his hair stood up right. / Just as the roll of the thunder and the storm alarm and put to flight the cattle; so was Bodhisattva affected by the words; shaking with apprehension, he deeply sighed (Beal, 1883, p. 33).

After seeing the sign of sickness (Beal, 1883, pp. 34-35), the prince witnesses the sign of death:

(Once more) he asked, ‘What is this they carry? With streamers and flowers of every choice description, whilst the followers are overwhelmed with grief, tearing their hair and wailing piteously.’ / And now the gods instructing the coachman, he replied and said, ‘This is a “dead man,” all his powers of body destroyed, life departed; his heart without thought, his intellect dispersed; / ‘His spirit gone, his form withered and decayed; stretched out as a dead log; family ties broken—all his friends who once loved him, clad in white cerements, / ‘Now no longer delighting to behold him, remove him to lie in some hollow ditch (tomb).’ The prince hearing the name of death, his heart constrained by painful thoughts, / He asked, ‘Is this the only dead man, or does the world contain like instances?’ Replying thus he said, ‘All, everywhere, the same; he who begins his life must end it likewise; / ‘The strong and lusty and the middle-aged, having a body, cannot but decay (and die).’ The prince now harassed and perplexed in mind; his body bent upon the chariot leaning-board, / With bated breath and struggling accents, stammered thus, ‘Oh worldly men! How fatally deluded! Beholding everywhere the body brought to dust, yet everywhere the more carelessly living; / ‘The heart is neither lifeless wood nor stone, and yet it thinks not “all is vanishing!” (Beal, 1883, pp. 36-37).

After the Monkey King rules the Mountain of Flowers and Fruit for more than three centuries, he tells his children:

Though we are not subject to the laws of man today, nor need we be threatened by the rule of any bird or beast, old age and physical decay in the future will disclose the secret sovereignty of Yama, King of the Underworld. If we die, shall we not have lived in vain, not being able to rank forever among the Heavenly beings? (Wu & Yu, 2012, p. 106).

The “shock” felt by Prince Siddhartha and the Monkey King upon realizing the impermanence of life is known in Buddhism as Samvega (Ch: yanli, 厭離) (Thanissaro Bhikkhu, n.d.). It’s interesting that Siddhartha is led to the reality of impermanence, while Monkey comes to the conclusion by himself. This is no doubt due to the differences in their lives. King Suddhodana ensures that his son lives a protected life, one free from the woes of the outside world, by surrounding him with luxury and young, beautiful palace attendants. However, Monkey rules the Mountain of Flowers and Fruit for over three hundred years, no doubt witnessing the decline and death of many of his companions, as well as the waning of his own youth. After all, the thought of impermanence would weigh heavy on anyone nearing the end of their life. This conclusion is supported by the fact that, when his soul is taken to hell in chapter three, Monkey learns from the ledgers of life and death that he was fated to die at 342 years old (fig. 8) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 140).

Fig. 7 – Siddhartha experiences the “Four Signs” (larger version). Artist unknown. Fig. 8 – Monkey striking his name from the Book of Life and Death (larger version). From Son Goku (1939).

5. Quest to overcome impermanence

Siddhartha is wracked by constant, obsessive thoughts on the dangers of old age, sickness, and death. After venturing out once more and witnessing poor farmers toiling away in the fields, he proclaims on the spot that he will find some way to oppose life’s suffering. At that exact moment, a deva affects the fourth sign by transforming into a monk (sk: bhikshu), who tells the prince:

Depressed and sad at [the] thought of age, disease, and death, I have left my home to seek some way of rescue, but everywhere I find old age, disease, and death, all (things) hasten to decay and there is no permanency; / ‘Therefore I search for the happiness of some thing that decays not, that never perishes, that never knows beginning, that looks with equal mind on enemy and friend, that heeds not wealth nor beauty, / ‘The happiness of one who finds repose alone in solitude, in some unfrequented dell, free from molestation, all thoughts about the world destroyed, dwelling in some lonely hermitage…’ (Beal, 1883, pp. 49-50).

This influences Siddhartha to forsake his royal life to become an ascetic and search for a means of escape from the evils of old age, sickness, and death. Cutting off his topknot, thus severing his royal ties, the future Buddha sets out into the world (Beal, 1883, p. 68). Siddhartha travels the land studying meditation (Sk: dhyana; Ch: chan, 禪) under various sages, pondering concepts of the body, the mind, the soul, and selfhood for years, and even practicing severe austerities that result in the emaciation of his body (fig. 9). But he eventually forsakes these extreme practices, recovering his bodily strength and vowing to achieve perfect enlightenment via meditation beneath a banyan tree (Beal, 1883, pp. 131-147).

When the Monkey King opines the injustice of impermanence, one of his advisors tells him that only three beings live beyond the reach of Yama:

There are, among the five major divisions of all living creatures, only three species that are not subject to Yama, King of the Underworld.” The Monkey King said, “Do you know who they are?” The monkey said, “They are the Buddhas, the immortals, and the holy sages [shensheng, 神聖]; these three alone can avoid the Wheel of Transmigration as well as the process of birth and destruction, and live as long as Heaven and Earth, the mountains and the streams.” “Where do they live?” asked the Monkey King. The monkey said, “They do not live beyond the world of the Jambudvipa, for they dwell within ancient caves on immortal mountains” (Wu & Yu, 2012, p. 107).  

Monkey then pledges to find these great men and women and learn their secret means of escape from Yama’s grasp:

“Tomorrow I shall take leave of you all and go down the mountain. Even if I have to wander with the clouds to the corners of the sea or journey to the distant edges of Heaven, I intend to find these three kinds of people. I will learn from them how to be young forever and escape the calamity inflicted by King Yama” (Wu & Yu, 2012, p. 107).

He sets sail in a makeshift raft and wonders the world for more than ten years, searching the towns and cities of the Jambudvipa continent before sailing to the Western Aparagodaniya continent. There, he is directed to the Cave of the Slanted Moon and Three Stars on the Mountain of Numinous Heart and Elixir Mind (Lingtai fangcun shan, xieyue sanxing dong, 靈台方寸山, 斜月三星洞), an immortal hermitage lorded over by the great Buddho-Daoist Sage Subodhi (Xuputi, 須菩提) (fig. 10). The sage accepts him as a student and gives him the religious name Sun Wukong (孫悟空), or “Monkey Awakened to the Void” (Wu & Yu, 2012, pp. 108-115).

Both tales show that Siddhartha and Monkey set out on their respective quests thanks to outside influences. The devas intervene numerous times to guide the future Buddha’s path to enlightenment, [2] proving that the heavenly realm has a vested interest in his fate. Wukong’s journey is instead influenced by the words of his mortal advisor. In this case, the gods have no interest in the fate of such “creatures from the world below” (Wu & Yu, 2012, p. 102). This of course changes once Monkey starts causing havoc throughout the cosmos.

Fig. 9 – A stone carving of the “Fasting Buddha” (Gandhara, 2nd- to 3rd-century BCE) (larger version). Fig. 10 – The Monkey King becomes Subhuti’s disciple (larger version). From Son Goku (1939).

6. Achieving a means of escape

The heavenly demon Mara (Mo, 魔) fears that Siddhartha will achieve enlightenment and help mankind break free from his domain, the illusionary world of Samsara, and so he leads a monstrous army against the great rishi. But the army is rendered powerless by Siddhartha’s supreme focus of mind and burgeoning grasp of reality (Beal, 1883, pp. 147-156). [3] Continuing his meditation further, the rishi perceives his myriad past lives, as well as the karmic punishment of those who covet or perform bad deeds, being tortured in hell or reborn into lower levels of existence, respectively. He then comprehends that suffering arises from clinging, clinging from desire, desire from sensation, sensation from contact, contact from the six senses, and the senses from consciousness. Finally, Siddhartha comes to the realization that breaking each link (e.g. cessation of clinging will end suffering) will stop old age, sickness, and death and ultimately destroy the endless chain of rebirths (Beal, 1883, pp. 156-163). Having achieved perfect enlightenment (fig. 11),

the Buddha then devised for the world’s benefit the eightfold path, right sight, and so on, the only true path for the world to tread. / Thus did he complete the end (destruction) of ‘self,’ as fire goes out for want of grass; thus he had done what he would have men do; he first had found the way of perfect knowledge; / He finished thus the first great lesson (paramartha); entering the great Rishi’s house, the darkness disappeared; light coming on, perfectly silent, all at rest, / He reached at last the exhaustless source of truth (dharma); lustrous with all wisdom the great Rishi sat, perfect in gifts, whilst one convulsive throe shook the wide earth (Beal, 1883, p. 163).

Journey to the West chapter two tells how Wukong serves as a junior monk for seven years before Subodhi takes him as a close disciple. One night, the sage recites him a poem full of flowery esoteric imagery revealing the secret to Daoist immortality and Buddhahood is the cultivation of chaste semen (jing, 精), breath (qi, 氣), and spiritual energy (shen, 神). The poem has a profound effect on Monkey, for the novel states: “At that moment, the very origin was disclosed to Wukong, whose mind became spiritualized as blessedness came to him” (Wu & Yu, 2012, p. 120). Following Subodhi’s instructions, Monkey performs breathing exercises after midnight (zi, 子) and before noon (wu, 午), resulting in immortality after three years of dedicated practice (fig. 12). [4] I should note that the book borrows from real Daoist practices but leaves much of the process up to the reader’s imagination. As I explain here, historical methods combined the aforementioned breathing exercises with the circulation of chaste semen and spiritual energy to create a spirit embryo (shengtai, 聖胎), or an immortal spirit that is eventually freed from the mortal shell. But in the case of the novel, Monkey’s practice results in an ageless, adamantine physical body, one capable of lifting even cosmic mountains.

Interestingly, the title of chapter two also refers to Monkey overcoming Mara. It reads: “Fully awoke to Bodhi’s wondrous truths / He cuts off Mara, returns to the root, and joins Primal Spirit” (Wu che puti zhen miao li / Duan Mo gui ben he yuanshen, 悟徹菩提真妙理 / 斷魔歸本合元神) (Wu & Yu, 2012, p. 116). The title freely associates Buddhist and Daoist concepts, such as Mara and the primal spirit. This synthesis is explained by Darga (2008):

Comparing the development of the embryo to the revelation of Buddhahood is typical of neidan texts of the Ming period. For instance, the Xingming guizhi (Principles of Balanced Cultivation of Inner Nature and Vital Force) uses Body of the Law (fashen 法身, dharmakāya) as a synonym for shengtai. The birth of the embryo represents the appearance of the original spirit (yuanshen 元神) or Buddhahood and is understood as enlightenment (p. 884).

The Buddha’s biography goes on for pages about deep philosophical concepts on the self, suffering, and reality, showing that the means of his liberation was of the utmost importance. By contrast, as noted above, Journey to the West leaves little space for Wukong’s method of immortality. In fact, the hard won moment that he breaks free of Yama’s grasp is not even mentioned in the novel! [5] So the author-compiler no doubt felt Monkey’s subsequent adventures were far more important. This is understandable considering that, in material as far back as the Song dynasty, Monkey is already an ancient immortal at the beginning of the story.

[Note: See the update below for a seventh parallel.]

Fig. 11 – Siddhartha achieves enlightenment and becomes the Buddha (larger version). Artist unknown. Fig. 12 – Wukong achieves immortality (larger version). Photomanipulation by the author.

A borrowed story?

So did the author-compiler (AC) of Journey to the West base Monkey’s early life on the Buddha’s story? The many similarities discussed above are very suggestive, but if only there was documented evidence of borrowing from other Buddhist personages. And that’s exactly what is found in chapter two. Shao (2006) explains that Wukong’s spiritual intelligence is based on the sixth Chan patriarch Huineng (惠能, 638-713):

[Monkey] sets the stage for a striking display of his unusually profound insight when he announces his intentions to become an immortal. This provokes Subhuti to issue him a challenge by refusing to teach him, for he is “some what different from other people.” Monkey may not realize that the master is trying to gauge his spiritual power, but he rises to the occasion with a genuine clarity of vision: “I have a round head pointing to Heaven, and square feet walking on Earth. Similarly, I have nine apertures and four limbs, entrails and cavities. In what way am I different from other people?”

[…]

[W]e may look to Huineng’s story from which Monkey garners meaning. No doubt, Monkey’s inspired cleverness is modeled on Huineng’s reply to Hongren, the fifth patriarch of Chinese Chan Buddhism, in Huineng’s Tanjing (The Platform Sutra). When Huineng announces his intentions to become a Buddha, Hongren pounces upon him with a poignant reminder that he is “from Lingnan,” a “barbarian,” and therefore cannot become a Buddha. Huineng refuses to be intimidated, however. He holds his own with an unparalleled depth of insight about Buddha-nature: There may be “northern and southern men,” but “the Buddha nature fundamentally has no north or south.” Surely Monkey’s phrasing, his unusual insightfulness, and the quickness and aplomb with which he rises to the challenge are reminiscent of Huineng… (pp. 719-720).

Therefore, if the AC borrowed from the life of Huineng, a Buddhist patriarch, then he certainly could have borrowed from the life of the Buddha. I suggest this was done to make Wukong’s early life more familiar to the reader. 

Conclusion

Despite the particulars of their stories being different, the Monkey King and the historical Buddha share six similarities. First, they experience a supernatural birth, both splitting open their mother in the same fashion as ancient Chinese sage-kings. Siddhartha emerges from the side of Queen Maya and Wukong forms from a stone egg birthed by a split rock. Second, they produce a radiant splendor upon their birth. Siddhartha’s body shines as he looks or walks to the four quarters, while beams shoot from Sun’s eyes as he bows to the four quarters. Third, they spend early years as royalty. The prince is born into the royal Shakya clan and Monkey achieves kinghood through a test of bravery. Fourth, they feel a sense of shock upon realizing the impermanence of life. Siddhartha is exposed to the evils of old age, sickness, and death via the “four signs” initiated by heaven. Wukong instead comprehends the fearsome hand of Yama through his observation of time. Fifth, they set out on a quest to find a means of escaping old age and death. The prince travels the land studying meditation and pondering concepts of the body, the mind, the soul, and selfhood. Monkey searches the world for over a decade before he is taken in by the Buddho-Daoist sage Subodhi. Sixth, they achieve their goal through spiritual practices. Siddhartha defeats Mara and achieves perfect enlightenment via intense meditation. Wukong breaks free from Yama/Mara and achieves immortality via Daoist elixir arts. And since the AC borrowed from the life of the Sixth Chan patriarch Huineng, he likely modeled the Monkey King’s early life on the Buddha to make his story more familiar.

Update: 06-12-22

I’ve noticed another parallel while reading two modern biographies of the Buddha. 

7. Student prodigies 

The Prince is said to have had a great aptitude for learning in his youth: “And now he was brought to learn the useful arts, when lo! once instructed (at one hearing) he surpassed his teachers” (Beal, 1883, p. 24). [6] Wukong has the same talent. When Subodhi teaches him the method for the 72 Transformations, he masters them very quickly:

[T]his Monkey King was someone who, knowing one thing, could understand a hundred! He immediately learned the oral formulas and, after working at them and practicing them himself, he mastered all seventy-two transformations (Wu & Yu, vol. 1, p. 122). 

Update: 06-18-22

I’ve written an article that lists a number of surprising parallels shared by Monkey and the Greco-Roman hero Heracles (see section 2).

Parallels Between Sun Wukong and Hercules

Notes:

1) See Cook and Luo (2017) chapter five for more examples of split-births.

2) Other than the “Four Signs”, another example of the devas intervening in Siddhartha’s life takes place shortly after he forsakes the extreme austerities that emaciate his body. He bathes in a holy river but can’t leave the water due to weakness from malnourishment. That’s when a deva pushes down a tree branch, allowing Siddhartha to pull himself to safety (Beal, 1883, p. 144).

3) For example, one passage reads: “Their flying spears, lances, and javelins, stuck fast in space, refusing to descend; the angry thunderdrops and mighty hail, with these, were changed into five-colour’d lotus flowers…” (Beal, 1883, p. 153).

4) The original source says “breathing exercises before the hour of Zi [子, midnight] and after the hour of Wu [午, noon]” (Wu & Yu, 2012, p. 121). However, this is likely a transcription error as Daoist sources cite the opposite, after midnight and before noon (Kohn, 2008, p. 84, for example). Therefore, I have corrected the information.

5) The moment that Monkey achieves immortality is only alluded to in passing:

Suddenly he [Subodhi] asked, “Where’s Wukong?” Wukong drew near and knelt down. “Your pupil’s here,” he said. “What sort of art have you been practicing lately?” the Patriarch asked. “Recently,” Wukong said, “your pupil has begun to apprehend the nature of all things and my foundational knowledge has become firmly established.” “If you have penetrated to the dharma nature to apprehend the origin,” said the Patriarch, “you have, in fact, entered into the divine substance” (Wu & Yu, 2012, p. 121).

6) Nakamura (2000) offers an extremely wordy translation of the above sentence: “When he had passed beyond childhood, he in due time received the initiation ceremony. He mastered in only a few days the various sciences suitable to his standing that [ordinary people] took many years to learn” (p. 90).

Sources:

Beal, S. (Trans.). (1883). The Fo-sho-hing-tsan-king: A Life of Buddha by Asvaghosha Bodhisattva. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Retrieved from https://archive.org/details/foshohingtsankin00asva/mode/2up

Birrell, A. (1999). Chinese Mythology: An introduction. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.

Buswell, R. E., & Lopez, D. S. (2014). The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Cook, C. A., & Luo, X. (2017). Birth in Ancient China: A Study of Metaphor and Cultural Identity in Pre-Imperial China. Albany: State University of New York Press.

Cowell, E. B. (Ed.) (1895). The Jātaka, or stories of the Buddhas former births: Vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Retrieved from https://archive.org/details/cu31924072231073/page/n249/mode/2up

Darga, M. (2008) Shengtai. In F. Pregadio (Ed.), The Encyclopedia of Taoism: Vol 1-2 (pp. 883-884). Longdon: Routledge.

Kohn, L. (2008). Chinese Healing Exercises: The Tradition of Daoyin. Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi Press.

Nakamura, H. (2000). Gotama Buddha: A Biography Based on the Most Reliable Texts (G. Sekimori, Trans.) (Vols. 1-2). Tokyo: Kosei Publishing Co.

Shao, P. (2006). Huineng, Subhūti, and Monkey’s Religion in “Xiyou ji”. The Journal of Asian Studies, 65(4), 713-740. Retrieved from www.jstor.org/stable/25076127.

Thanissaro Bhikkhu (n.d.). Affirming the Truths of the Heart: The Buddhist Teachings on Samvega & Pasada. Retrieved from https://www.dhammatalks.org/books/NobleStrategy/Section0004.html.

Wu, C., & Yu, A. C. (2012). The Journey to the West (Vol. 1). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press.

Xuanzang (2016). The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions (2nd ed., R. Li, trans.). California: BDK AMerica, Inc. (Original work published 1996)