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Story Idea: Sun Wukong vs Heracles / Hercules

Jim R. McClanahan 2 Comments

From time to time I like to post a fun blog not directly related to (though sometimes informed by) my research. Regular articles will resume after this entry.

Last updated: 03-28-2026

Readers may remember that DEATH BATTLE! (episode 162) featured a fight between Sun Wukong from Journey to the West (Xiyou ji, 西遊記, 1592 CE, “JTTW” hereafter) and Heracles / Hercules from Greco-Roman myth (fig. 1). The episode begins with the demi-god trekking up a mountain in order to fulfill the 11th of his famous 12 labors: procuring the Golden Apples of the Hesperides (Salapata, 2021), but he instead finds Monkey holding the fruit—food meant for his master, Tripitaka. Heracles demands the apple at sword-point, but he quickly discerns that the produce he’s been given was created from a magic hair. This leads to a deadly confrontation.

As I explain in my analysis of the episode, I initially liked how the fight began because both characters are known for stealing fruit in their respective mythologies (see no. 12 in my article listing their parallels). But in hindsight, this didn’t make much sense for two reasons. First, the golden apples are located in a land much further west than India, the scripture-pilgrims’ final destination in JTTW. Monkey could have easily gone to a location closer to their resting spot. And second, having the heroes meet during their respective adventures creates a temporal paradox since both are active at different times—late-Greek bronze age (c. 3000–1000 BCE) vs the early-Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE). Therefore, in the end, the idea is very forced. But what would be a more natural way for the Son of Zeus and the Great Sage Equaling Heaven to come to blows?

This article proposes a more organic reason for conflict via a story idea based on elements from JTTW, Greek myth, Greco-Buddhist art, and Buddhist literature. But take note that the encounter is NOT meant to be a death battle. Remember that the rest of the journey still needs to take place.

Fig. 1 – The official thumbnail for the episode (larger version). Image found here.

Table of Contents

1. Basis for the Story

My pitch is an offshoot of a previous story idea. It follows the historical Xuanzang (玄奘, 602–664 CE) (on whom Tripitaka is based) on his quest for sutras through Central Asia and India, including years-long periods of study. While the original novel sees Daoism practiced by Chinese-speaking people as far away as the Western Continent (i.e. India), this wouldn’t be the case in the real world. Therefore, changes would have to be made to the narrative, such as the appearance of foreign gods outside of the Middle Kingdom. But as I noted in the original article, it would be a lot easier to include the devas of Buddhism (e.g. Shakra, Brahma, Heavenly Kings, etc.) since the religion was practiced throughout the areas traveled by Xuanzang. This, however, wouldn’t exclude gods from other pantheons, like Heracles.

1.1. Heracles as Vajrapani in Greco-Buddhist Art

Now, I can already hear my readers asking, “How could Heracles possibly be associated with the gods of Buddhism?” Well, the first Greeks arrived in Central Asia and India during the reign of Darius the Great (550–486 BCE) and later Alexander the Great (356–323 BCE). And just like American Gods, these soldiers, merchants, artisans, and farmers brought their religion with them. The convergence of these two cultures eventually resulted in the demi-god appearing alongside Tathagata in the 1st to 3rd century CE Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara (modern day NW Pakistan to E and NE Afghanistan) (fig. 2). The Greek hero takes the place of the Buddha’s loyal protector, the yaksha-turned-dharma guardian Vajrapani (Sk: वज्रपाणि, lit: “Vajra [Thunderbolt] in hand”; Ch: Jingang shou pusa, 金剛手菩薩, lit: “Bodhisattva holding the vajra”). (I have to say that Heracles’ association with the thunderbolt is super fascinating given who his father is.) In fact, the common image of Vajrapani as a muscular, club-wielding deva in East Asia (fig. 3) is directly linked to his depiction as Heracles in Gandharan art!

I won’t go into further detail here since I’ve already taken the liberty of archiving papers on the subject in preparation for this article:

Archive #50 – Heracles as Vajrapani

Fig. 2 – Detail of a stone carving of the Buddha preaching while Heracles-Vajrapani watches over him, Gandhara, 2nd or 3rd century CE, Schist (larger version). He wields a gada mace in his right hand and holds a bone-like vajra-club in the left. Adapted from an image found here. Copyright the Trustees of the British Museum. Fig. 3 – A Tang-era painting of Vajrapani, Dunhuang, Gansu Province, China, mid-9th to early-10th century CE, ink and colors on silk (larger version). Take note of his muscular physique and wispy beard. The vajra-club in his left hand is obscured by his leg. Image found here. Copyright the Trustees of the British Museum. See here for a Tang-era painting of Vajrapani with a visible club.

1.2. Historical Monkey King and Vajrapani Crossovers

Sun Wukong and Vajrapani have technically met before. For example, in the 13th century CE version of the JTTW story cycle, the Great Sage’s antecedent, the “Monkey Pilgrim” (Hou xingzhe, 猴行者), changes his magic staff into the dharma warrior while facing a white tiger spirit:

Monkey Pilgrim transformed his golden-ringed staff into a gigantic Yakşa whose head touched the sky and whose feet straddled the earth. In his hands he grasped a demon-subduing cudgel [jiangmochu, 降魔杵]. His body was blue as indigo, his hair red as cinnabar; from his mouth a fiery gleam shot forth over one thousand feet long” (based on Wivell, 1994, p. 1189). [1]

被猴行者將金鐶杖變作一個夜叉，頭點天，腳踏地，手把降魔杵，身如藍靛青，發似硃沙，口吐百丈火光。

The titan eventually crushes her with his weapon (Wivell, 1994, p. 1189). The “demon-subduing cudgel” is another name for Vajrapani’s vajra-thunderbolt.

Also, the Monkey King interacts with Vajra warriors (Jingang, 金剛) related to Vajrapani numerous times in the standard 1592 CE JTTW. In chapter 52, his way is momentarily barred by the “Eight Great Vajras” (Ba da jingang, 八大金剛) when he seeks an unannounced audience with the Buddha (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 24). [2] In chapter 58, the eight warriors fail to stop Wukong and his doppelganger when they fight to the Western Paradise seeking Tathagata’s wisdom to distinguish one from the other (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 114). After the Bull Demon King is captured in chapter 61, the Great Sage gathers the “Four Great Vajras” (Si da jingang, 四大金剛) and a host of other gods to confront Princess Iron Fan (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 161). In chapter 77, the four warriors once again momentarily bar his way when he seeks an audience with the Buddha (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 4, pp. 27-28). In chapter 98, the four warriors welcome Tripitaka and his companions, including Monkey, upon their arrival to the Western Paradise (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 4, p. 347). Later in the same chapter, the Buddha charges the eight warriors with transporting the clerics on a cloud to hasten the completion of their mission and return to paradise (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 4, p. 357). But after being ordered to prematurely drop off the pilgrims, leading to Tripitaka’s 81st tribulation, the eight warriors reappear sometime later to complete the trip to China (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 4, p. 369). And finally, in chapter 100, the eight warriors spirit them back to the Western Paradise to receive their otherworldly reward (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 4, p. 380).

In addition, Sun Wukong and Vajrapani are associated with each other in Shaolin Monastery lore. The latter was historically worshiped as the progenitor of their famous staff method. A stele erected by Shaolin abbot Wenzai in 1517 CE shows that the deity’s vajra-club had been changed at some point to a Chinese staff (fig. 4) (Shahar, 2008, p. 84). Vajrapani’s yaksha-like Narayana (Naluoyan(tian), 那羅延(天)) form was eventually equated with one of the four staff-wielding “Kimnara Kings” (Jinnaluo wang, 緊那羅王) from the Lotus Sutra in 1575 CE. His name was thus changed from Narayana to Kimnara King (Shahar, 2008, p. 87). One version of the story about his creation of the staff method takes place during the Yuan Dynasty‘s Red Turban Rebellion (1351–1368 CE). Bandits lay siege to the monastery, but it is saved by a lowly kitchen worker wielding a long fire poker as a makeshift staff. He leaps into the oven and emerges as a monstrous giant tall enough to straddle both Mount Song and the imperial fort atop Mount Shaoshi, which are five miles (8.046 km) apart. The bandits flee when they behold this staff-wielding titan. The Shaolin monks later realize that the kitchen worker was none other than the Kimnara King in disguise (Shahar, 2008, pp. 87-88). Shahar (2008) suggests that mythical elements of the story were borrowed from the Monkey King’s adventures. He compares the worker’s transformation in the stove with Sun’s time in Laozi’s Eight Trigrams furnace (Bagua lu, 八卦爐), their use of the staff, and the fact that Monkey and his weapon can both grow to gigantic proportions (Shahar, 2008, p. 109). [3]

Therefore, given the above information, it’s not a stretch to have the two heroes meet in a fanfiction.

Fig. 4 – An ink rubbing of the 1517 CE Shaolin stele showing a titanic Vajrapani defending the monastery from rebels (larger version). From Shahar, 2008, p. 84.

2. The Main Story Idea

I’ve added in-text notes in this section to provide readers with extra context. This way, you won’t have to scroll to the endnotes at the bottom.

Buddhist tradition describes Tathagata visiting the devas to preach the dharma (Buswell & Lopez, 2014, p. 235). With the presence of Greeks in Central and South Asia, I imagine he would also visit the Olympian gods who had gained some influence in the region. (See the 03-28-26 update below for more info). These friendly interactions would lead Zeus to assign Heracles to guard the Enlightened One (fig. 5), thereby forming a link between the Greek and Buddhist pantheons (and explaining the aforementioned art). (See the 10-29-25 and 12-02-25 updates below for a detail from Greek myth that supports this idea.)

Here is where one of many changes to the standard 1592 CE JTTW story happens. In chapter six of the original, the bodhisattva Guanyin recommends that the demi-god Erlang battle the Monkey King after the latter had defeated many of heaven’s greatest warriors (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 178). In our tale, she instead endorses the demi-god-turned-deity Heracles-Vajrapani (“HV” hereafter). [A]

A) The Son of Zeus became a full-blown god upon his death. After being exposed to a tunic soaked with poisonous hydra blood, Heracles sought release from the immense pain by jumping into a funeral pyre. But the flaming structure was shortly thereafter struck by lightning, signaling his rise to godhood (Romero-Gonzalez, 2021, pp. 273-276). This, of course, takes place hundreds of years before he becomes the protector of the Buddha.

Fig. 5 – A lovely digital painting of Heracles traveling with the Buddha (larger version). By Jacob King (deviantart). Used with permission. Image found here.

(I don’t consider myself a competent story writer, so please look at the following events and dialogue as conceptual in nature. I’m sure a seasoned writer could do the narrative more justice.)

Similar to the standard narrative, the monkey-soldiers of Wukong’s army notify him that heaven has sent another challenger. He emerges from his cave fully armored (refer to section 2.2. here) to see HV for the first time. Like the original, this might be followed by a poem describing the enemy; in this case, a large, muscular, bearded warrior wearing a lion skin and wielding a flaming vajra-club. (See the 02-19-26 update below for a visual.)

[Insert insults from both sides, including the Son of Zeus calling Monkey a “young rogue,” which naturally pisses him off. [B] HV also describes his godly heritage, which is alien to Monkey since he’s not familiar with the Greek pantheon.]

B) The Great Sage has a habit of claiming to be older than the various gods, immortals, spirits, and humans he meets—whether it’s true or not in the first three cases (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 413, for example). This is exemplified by his self-given nickname “(Maternal/Paternal) Grandpa Sun” (Sun waigong, 孫外公; Sun Yeye, 孫爺爺). But within the story’s timeline, Heracles is indeed hundreds of years older. Writing around 430 BCE, the Greek historian Herodotus claimed that the Son of Zeus lived roughly 900 years before him, placing the demi-god’s life sometime around 1330 BCE. The Greek hero would, therefore, be active around 830 or more years prior to the birth of Wukong (c. 500 BCE).

The pair first take part in a battle of weapons, with Wukong wielding his magic staff and HV his vajra-club. The earth quakes, gods tremble, etc. HV’s powerful strikes push our hero back, causing his staff to painfully vibrate in his hands [C] and create a deafening ringing noise with each hit. Monkey would have a running internal monologue noting the great force of his opponent’s attacks. But despite this, the Great Sage continues driving forward, his weapon hardly leaving the area around HV’s head. [D] At one point, though, a glancing strike from the Greco-Buddhist hero redirects the staff, creating an opening. HV brings his vajra-club down hard on Monkey, but instead of dodging, the latter jerks his head upwards, butting away his opponent’s holy weapon with a loud, metallic bang. [E] The combined forces from the attack and defense might cause destruction to the surrounding area.

C) It may seem impossible for the staff to painfully vibrate in Wukong’s hands, but this indeed happens once in the novel. In JTTW chapter 20, he attempts to bludgeon a tiger-spirit, but when “the rod bounce[s] back up and his hands [a]re stung by the impact” (… 轉震得自己手疼), he learns it was just a big stone covered with the fiend’s sloughed off skin (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 403).

D) The phrase “hardly leaving the monster’s head” is respectively used in JTTW chapters 41 and 67 (here and here) to describe Wukong’s supreme mastery of the staff (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, p. 224; vol. 3, p. 249).

E) The feat of headbutting the weapon serves two purposes. First, it’s a response to this 2020 DEATH BATTLE! fanon wiki script that sees Hercules win by smashing the primate immortal’s head to a pulp with his club. (This attack carried over into the official episode, too.) The ending betrays the author’s extremely limited knowledge of JTTW. In the original, the Great Sage’s head is one of the hardest parts of his body, giving him the confidence to voluntarily take blows to the scalp from even magic, bladed weapons with no harm (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, pp. 314, 383-384, and 408; vol. 2, p. 128; vol. 3, pp. 125 and 373). And two, it highlights the correlation between the invulnerability of Monkey and the Nemean Lion, the first labor of Heracles (March, 2021). Regarding the ending of the fan script, one version of the original mythology sees the Son of Zeus break his olive club over the lion’s head because of how tough its hide is (March, 2021, p. 34).

The novel gives at least three reasons for the Great Sage’s invulnerability. After heaven fails to execute him with bladed weapons and fire and lightning in JTTW chapter 7, Laozi suggests that all of the immortal foodstuff previously consumed by our hero had been refined by his own samadhi fire (sanmei huo, 三昧火), a spiritual flame in the lower abdomen, thus giving him a “diamond body” (jingang zhi qu, 金鋼之軀) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 188). Wukong himself later attributes his adamantine nature to his time in the high god’s furnace. In JTTW chapter 34, for example, he claims to have developed a heart of gold, viscera of silver, a head of bronze, and a back of iron, etc. (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, p. 131). This is refuted in JTTW chapter 75 when he claims to have been born with a head of bronze and iron that was further refined by the furnace (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 374).

Stunned from the powerful blow, [F] Monkey stumbles around holding his head for a moment but raises his weapon in defense when he sees HV approaching. However, instead of attacking, the Greco-Buddhist warrior pauses combat by raising a hand in front of him. “What a skull!” he exclaims while clapping. “And no hint of blood! I reckon your hide is as tough as a monstrous beast I once fought. [G] Truly impressive! And your staff technique is masterful! Who trained you?”

F) This references how the Nemean Lion was blinded by pain after the blow (March, 2021, p. 34).

G) This reference is obvious.

“I have no teacher. [H] I alone trained my mind and body for three years.” [I]

H) This refers to Wukong’s promise to never reveal the Buddho-Daoist sage, Patriarch Subodhi, as his teacher under threat of karmic torture in the underworld (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 125).

I) This is the length of time that he spends as an indoor disciple of Subodhi (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 121).

“A prodigy!” exclaims HV. “But how good is your boxing and wrestling?”

“Ol’ Monkey can handle himself.”

“Let’s see if that’s true. How about we have a friendly sparring match, a test of heroic strength and skill? No weapons and no pesky magic tricks. Agreed?”

Wukong quickly agrees and inserts his shrunken staff into his ear before stripping off his armor from the waist up to match HV’s exposed muscles. HV somehow magically stores his holy vajra-club. The two then square up and launch forward, locking hands and pushing against the other, causing the ground beneath them to tremble and split.

“Extraordinary!” says HV. “How can such a small creature be so powerful?! [J] Were you born of the gods?

J) Many people often forget that Monkey’s normal form is less than 4-Chinese feet (121.92 cm) tall (see here).

“No, I was born from a stone egg.” (See the 02-28-26 update below for an interesting Greek parallel.)

“Oh, like the terrible stone titan and stone goddess! [K] No wonder you achieved this level of strength in such a short time. You have so much raw potential. Why cause trouble for such petty reasons?” [L]

K) These are Ullikumi and Agdistis, two powerful, rebellious, stone-born deities from Western myth (see sections 2.1 & 2.4 here). Referencing the former shows that HV is aware of the Near Eastern pantheon.

It’s interesting to note that lithic births are at least common enough in world myth to have earned a category in Stith Thompson’s Motif-Index of Folk-Literature: “Birth from rock” (T544.1).

L) This refers to Wukong’s rebellion over being given the lowest-ranking position in the Daoist heaven.

[Insert Wukong’s reply. They continue to converse during the battle.]

(This might be a good place to introduce some comedy. HV keeps referencing gods and monsters from other pantheons, making Monkey more and more frustrated:

“What the hell is wrong with you?! I … DON’T … KNOW … THESE … PEOPLE!!! [said in a slow, patronizing voice])

The Great Sage’s internal monologue comments on HV’s diamond grip and the great pressure of his punches. But our hero’s keen eyes notice openings in HV’s defense, allowing him to land blow after blow. However, with each successful attack comes praises from HV. Stinging rib shot. “Good, good!” Cutting elbow strike to the face. “Excellent!” Crushing body slam. “Amazing!”

“Why do you keep lauding me? I’m winning!”

“That would certainly be the case … if we were equals.”

“What do you mean?!”

Smiling, HV explains, “I’ve been testing you! [M] You found all of the openings I offered you, even some that I didn’t intend to because I was apparently too focused on judging your technique. [N] You are a talent the likes of which I’ve never seen before! Thank Father Zeus [or Buddha]! The student I’ve been looking for has finally appeared! Forsake this frivolous rebellion and return with me to the Western Paradise. I promise with my tutelage, you will become one of the greatest warriors of any pantheon!”

M) Perhaps HV decides to test the Great Sage when he sees how well the small primate responds to his opening strikes.

N) It just occurred to me that since the Subodhi appearing in this more realistic version of the story is the historical figure he’s based on, Subhuti, one of the Buddha’s ten principal disciples, the patriarch had to have trained under someone during Tathagata’s lifetime. And considering that HV was the Enlightened One’s bodyguard, perhaps Subhuti learned a little from the Greco-Buddhist hero—apart from other deities, holy men, and warriors, including the Buddha, a member of the Kshatriya class. An interesting implication is that HV would recognize (his or an ally’s) techniques among Wukong’s armed and unarmed attacks or defenses, thereby alerting him that Monkey’s claim of having no master is false. Yet, he would still be supremely impressed that the Great Sage became such a powerful, competent fighter in just three short years.

Fun fact: according to Theocritus, Heracles learned boxing and wrestling from the grim-looking demi-god Harpalycus, son of Hermes (Pache, 2021, p. 10). Apollodorus instead claims his teacher was Autolycus (2.4.9), also a son of Hermes.

“I think you’re full of shit! Ol’ Monkey is whittling away at you, and you’re just trying to talk your way out of it.”

“Well, my offer stands,” HV replies calmly, “but now that I’ve had my fun, it’s time to finish this.”

“Finish what, you bastard?!” Wukong screams in anger. He then unleashes a tornado of powerful punches, kicks, and knee and elbow strikes. But this time they have no effect on the Son of Zeus because he’s no longer playing along.

I’m not quite sure what the next sequence of events would be since I have zero experience choreographing fight scenes, especially between celestial warriors. Perhaps HV displays his true power by running Monkey headfirst through the side of a mountain with an outstretched arm, similar to how the comic book character Omni-Man uses his son, Invincible, like a wedge to slice through an oncoming subway train [warning: gore]. This feat alone would surely cause the primate immortal to question how his opponent’s strength has seemingly increased exponentially. [O] (But upon reflection, this deed seems lacking considering that Wukong himself is shown capable of carrying two mountains while running with great speed. Hopefully someone can suggest a feat for HV that would amaze even the Great Sage.) (See the 02-20-26 update below for a new reason.)

O) This, of course, proves that HV was holding back. It’s important to note that in Buddhist literature, the original Vajrapani is considered the “physical manifestation of the … power … of all the Buddhas” (Buswell & Lopez, 2014, p. 955). Now imagine how much stronger HV would be than Monkey! Apart from his own godly heritage, I guess in my version of JTTW, HV would gain an unfathomable boost in power from serving as the protector and disciple of the Buddha, exposing him to the dharma for centuries—during Tathagata’s lifetime and afterlife following his parinirvana (figs. 6 & 7). This is similar to how the scorpion-demoness becomes so strong in JTTW chapter 55 (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 72). But HV would be well beyond even her.

I guess the Great Sage would hold off on using magic up to this point as a matter of pride, but maybe his hand is forced when faced with such oppressive strength. Like in the original, he might resort to his magic hairs, summoning hundreds of tiny clones in the hopes of overwhelming the Son of Zeus. [P] However, the Greco-Buddhist warrior quickly neutralizes these—possibly by clapping his hands together and creating a shockwave that blows them away [Q] and destroys the surrounding area—pressuring our hero to take other measures. Maybe Monkey frantically cycles through one trick after another but ultimately fails to best his opponent. (See the 10-26-25 update below for a detail from Greek myth that supports this idea). (It would be fascinating to see how HV deals with Wukong’s three-headed, six-armed war form—surely eliciting comparisons to Geryon.) [R]

To these breaches of their agreement, HV responds with something like, “Magic? You disappoint me.”

[Insert Monkey’s response.]

P) Monkey competes in hand-to-hand combat in JTTW chapters two and 51, and each time he resorts to hair clones when things get out of hand (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, pp. 128-129; vol. 3, pp. 12-13).

Q) The hair clones can indeed be blown away, as shown by the Yellow Wind Demon in JTTW chapter 21 (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, pp. 409-410).

R) Thank you to a beta reader of this article for reminding me about Geryon. He is sometimes described as having or depicted with three conjoined bodies, complete with three heads and six arms like Monkey (fig. 8) (Finglass, 2021).

Fig. 6 (Top) – A degraded stone carving depicting the parinirvana of the Buddha, Gandhara, 2nd to 3rd-century CE, Schist (larger version). HV is the first person from the left on the bottom row. He holds his vajra-club in one hand and upraises the other in lamentation. He has an exposed torso, showing off his muscles, in place of his signature lionskin. Housed in the British Museum. Adapted from an image found on Wikimedia Commons. Copyright Marie-Lan Nguyen. Fig. 7 (Bottom Left) – Detail of HV (larger version). Fig. 8 (Bottom Right) – Heracles vs Geryon, Attic black figure on Amphora vase, mid-6th century BCE (larger version). Housed in the Musée du Louvre, Paris.  This is an upscaled version of an image found here. Copyright www.theoi.com.

Ideally, given the parallels between Wukong and the Nemean lion—both are fierce mythological animals, have invulnerable hides, can change shape, [S] and fight someone who is/was a demi-god (Erlang vs Heracles)—I would like to see HV maneuver to Monkey’s back and get him in a chokehold, thereby mimicking how the big cat was originally defeated. [T] But instead of killing the Great Sage, he only intends to choke him to unconsciousness. [U] (Again, see the 10-26-25 update below). And to make matters worse, as the primate immortal fades towards blacking out, he by chance witnesses his beloved monkey army being routed and captured by celestial forces, like the standard version (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 182). This causes him to lose heart and flee HV’s powerful arms by changing into an intangible ball of light or gust of wind. [V]

S) Matyszak (2015) states that the lion would sometimes take the form of kidnapped women (that it had presumably already eaten) in order to lure unsuspecting heroes into its cave (pp. 46-47). Dr. Matyszak tells me that “it’s not part of the core myth” but “later Roman and Byzantine authors do mention it” (personal communication, October 17, 2025).

T) I really like the ending of Theocritus’ description of the fight:

[After hitting him over the head with a club,] I threw my bow and stitched quiver to the ground, and before he could recover and turn on me again, I grabbed him by the scruff of his powerful neck. Gripping him firmly, I strangled him with my strong hands, tackling him from behind to stop him scratching me with his claws. Standing on his hind paws, I pressed them hard to the ground with my heels and controlled his flanks with my thighs, until I could lift him up lifeless in my arms and lay him out. And mighty Hades took his spirit (March, 2021, p. 34).

U) Someone might claim that it would be impossible to choke out Monkey since he’s a spiritual being, but it’s important to remember that the novel humanizes supernatural figures in order to make them more relatable. For instance, in JTTW chapter 65, Wukong claims that he will die from the lack of air inside of a sealed Buddhist treasure-weapon if he isn’t soon released (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 217). And he reiterates this near-death experience to Zhu after escaping a few pages later (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 224). Having read that, I think a blood choke would be more dignified and less dangerous method for subduing our hero.

V) Wukong escapes in the form of a ball of light in JTTW chapters 34 and 42 (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, pp. 126 and 241). And he turns into a gust of wind to follow a foe in JTTW chapter 60 (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 140). This could easily be used to escape as well.

A beta reader suggested that I work Erlang and his sworn brothers back into the story. They could track down and capture Monkey. But however the situation is resolved, this would lead to the events of the original story: the Great Sage’s failed execution, his sentence to Laozi’s furnace, his escape and wager with Buddha, his imprisonment beneath Five Elements Mountain, and his eventual release to go on the journey. And since Wukong comes into contact with Erlang once more and the Vajra warriors several times in the standard version, [W] he would likely meet HV again during the pilgrimage. The Son of Zeus might even comment on his positive change in character as Tripitaka’s disciple and protector.

W) The Great Sage meets Erlang again in chapter 63 (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, pp. 187-191). Regarding Vajra warriors, refer back to section 1.2.

Two beta readers were disappointed by the ending because they didn’t think HV could defeat the Great Sage. As a longtime uberfan of Monkey myself, I understand that sentiment, but they should remember that this is not just the Heracles of Greco-Roman myth, who’s immensely powerful in his own right, able to support the sky on his shoulders in one myth (Salapata, 2021, p. 152). He’s an amalgam of the Greek hero and the Buddha’s protector. Recall that Vajrapani is considered the embodiment of all the Tathagatas’ power (refer back to note O). And If the dharma of one Buddha can easily defeat Monkey (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, pp. 195 and 199), a being endowed with the power of ALL of them should have no problem subduing our favorite primate immortal.

I feel like this idea has so much potential, but I lack the experience or talent to do it justice here. Hopefully, readers will see through the lackluster description to understand the promise of greatness that it holds. Please let me know if anyone is interested in fleshing out this tale.

Lastly, while finishing this section, I came upon a fun coincidence: ancient Greco-Buddhist stone carvings with HV, the Buddha, and … a monkey (figs. 9 & 10)! They depict “The Monkey Offering Honey (to the Buddha)” (Ch: Mihou xianmi, 獼猴獻蜜; Mihou fengmi, 獼猴奉蜜), a tale from the Tathagata’s lifetime where a primate selflessly offered him honey but shortly thereafter fell and died via drowning or impalement. Thankfully, though, the primate was reborn into the deva realm (Van der Geer, 2022, pp. 439-440). [W] The carvings depict HV watching over the Enlightened One during this event.

Perhaps, based on these images, HV tells Wukong at some point during their confrontation that he reminds him of someone from the past. (Fanfic theory: could the Great Sage be a reincarnation?)

W) The historical Xuanzang mentions a version of this story where the primate is later reborn as a human (Li, 1996/2017, p. 106). He adds that the area where the offering originally happened hosts images of monkeys (mihou xingxiang, 獼猴形像) next to a water tank or pond supposedly dug by a group of them for the Enlightened One (Li, 1996/2017, p. 184). [4]

Fig. 9 (Left) – Detail of a stone doorway fragment with two stacked carvings illustrating “The Monkey Offering Honey (to the Buddha)” story, Gandhara, 1st to 3rd-century CE, Schist (larger version). The upper scene portrays the primate asking for a bowl, while the lower depicts the offering of honey. HV is present in both: first from the left on the top and first from the right on the bottom. He lacks his beard and lionskin but wields his signature weapon. The extra person photobombing the lower scene may be Ananda. Fig. 10 (Right) – The full stone doorway fragment portraying various events from the Tathagata’s life (larger version). Housed in the Guimet Museum, Paris, France. Adapted from an image found on Wikimedia Commons. Copyright Marie-Lan Nguyen. 

3. An Idea for a Sequel

A continuation of the story would open where the original leaves off: after the scripture-pilgrims are elevated in spiritual rank, Tathagata charges HV with escorting the Victorious Fighting Buddha (i.e. Sun Wukong; fig. 11) through the Greek world-system. Imagine the kind of adventures Monkey would have as a Buddha interacting with Classical gods and monsters! It would definitely be a great way of introducing East Asian people to the wonders of Greek myth.

I really like the idea of HV visiting his old pantheon as his vajra is analogous to Zeus’ thunderbolt. Seeing a father-son lightning competition would be great!

Also, as I’ve discussed elsewhere, Wukong and Poseidon could bond over their shared love of horses.

Fig. 11 – Wukong as the Victorious Fighting Buddha (larger version). Imagery based on the iconography of the historical Yuddhajaya Buddha. Art by NingadudeXx.

3.1. Commissioned Art

I have commissioned some illustrators to draw Monkey in ancient Greek style as an experiment to see what he might look like through the lens of Hellenistic artisans.

Fig. 12 – The Victorious Fighting Buddha (larger version). Pencil, fineliners, and alcohol markers on paper. Art by tr0chanter (Instagram and Twitter).

Fig. 13 – Heracles vs Monkey (larger version). Pencil and markers on paper. Art by Dario Virga (Onibotokemaru on Instagram), a friend of the blog. Each character is labeled with their name in Greek. Heracles is “Ἡρακλῆς,” while the Great Sage is “Pithekos” (πῐ́θηκος), meaning “ape, monkey, trickster, or dwarf.” Wukong’s Greek name is very fitting. It’s also part of the modern scientific name for Old world monkeys (Cercopithecoidea).

Fig. 14 – Heracles vs Sun Wukong (larger version). Digital. Art by Jacob King (Twitter, Instagram, Tumblr). I love the cracks.

4. Possible Fanfiction

I can already predict fanfiction set in an alternate timeline where Monkey accepts HV’s offer to become his teacher. The Son of Zeus would spend time instructing Wukong on advanced techniques of boxing, wrestling, and weapons. This, of course, would be taught in tandem with spiritual cultivation. The training might be in preparation for a fighting tournament between the disciples of gods from all pantheons, kind of like Record of Ragnarok (Jp: Shūmatsu no Warukyūre, 終末のワルキューレ; lit. “Doomsday Valkyrie”; fig. 15). The contestants could be fighting for permission to start their own pantheon, thereby becoming a “Sky Father” (Sk: Dyaus-pitr, द्यौष्पितृ; Ch: Tianshang fuqin, 天上父親). Maybe the long-established Sky Fathers share some of their divine spark to kickstart the new world-system.

I REALLY like this idea, but it wouldn’t work for my own purposes since, as stated above, Wukong would still need to go on the journey.

Perhaps the prize could be the chance to help mankind since one of the reasons that Tripitaka is asked to quest for sutras is because they will help free untold numbers of orphaned souls from the torments of hell (see JTTW chapters 11 and 12). Therefore, the tournament would essentially be a contest to see who will be the Tang Monk’s protector. I don’t really like this idea, but it at least supports the original narrative. The Great Sage would win, of course, but he has to agree to have his extraordinary powers (and memories of the tournament) sealed as a test of his resolve or devotion. And his subsequent enlightenment would be the reward for his great deeds performed on the journey.

Fig. 15 – Promotional art for Record of Ragnarok (larger version). Image found here.

5. Updates

Update: 10-11-25

I’ve seen people claim online that Sun Wukong would easily defeat Heracles because the latter’s feats are not as grand as the former. To this, I counter that the deeds of both heroes shouldn’t be compared, for they serve difference purposes. I don’t know of any feats of speed for Heracles, but Monkey’s famous ability to fly 108,000 li (33,554 mi / 54,000 km) in a single cloud somersault is an allegory for instant enlightenment (as explained in section III here). [5] And his feat of carrying two Buddhist mountains on his shoulders is likely an allegory for the Great Sage “supporting” the religion by protecting his master on the quest for sutras (as I suggest here). The deeds of Heracles, however, were probably meant as actual displays of brute strength. For instance, ancient Greek men on lion hunts may have drawn inspiration and courage from the demi-god’s defeat of the Nemean Lion. [6]

Update: 10-26-25

Above, I wrote that “[m]aybe Monkey frantically cycles through one trick after another” in a failed bid to win, and I later added, “I would like to see HV maneuver to Monkey’s back and get him in a chokehold.” Well, I’m happy to report that I’ve found a mythic way to combine these. The Bibliotheca of Pseudo-Apollodorus describes Heracles’s grip tiring out a shape-shifting sea god:

And going on foot through Illyria and hastening to the river Eridanus he came to the nymphs, the daughters of Zeus and Themis. They revealed Nereus to him, and Hercules seized him while he slept, and though the god turned himself into all kinds of shapes, the hero bound him [with his arms (fig. 16)] and did not release him till he had learned from him where were the apples and the Hesperides (2.5.11).

Matyszak (2015) calls this binding a “Herculean head-lock” (p. 150). Therefore, in our story, Wukong cycles through all manner of transformations but can’t break free from HV’s grip! Then he loses heart and flees when he sees his children captured (as mentioned previously).

Fig. 16 – Heracles wrestling Nereus/Triton (larger version). From an 1894 drawing of a circa 550 BCE Attic Black-figure Kylix. Image found on Wikimedia Commons. For the original, see here.

Update: 10-29-25

I’ve also found a mythic reason for why Heracles would be sent away from Olympus to protect Buddha. Matyszak (2015) explains that the Son of Zeus didn’t want to become an official member of the Twelve Olympians because this would have forced someone out of the group:

Some felt that the mighty deeds of Hercules entitled him to the status of a full Olympian God. However, the number of Olympians was limited to the sacred number of twelve, and in a rare moment of diplomacy Hercules declined to take an honour that would have first to be stripped from someone else. (Dionysus, the God of Wine was less bashful. He bumped Hestia, Goddess of the Home, off the Olympian high table when his time came to be made divine.) (p. 200)

So instead of taking an Olympian’s spot, Heracles decides to accept a position within the Buddhist pantheon as the Tathagata’s protector.

Update: 12-02-25

I have found the specific passage alluded to by Matyszak (2015) in the previous update. In book four of his Library of History (c. 60 to 30 BCE), Diodorus Siculus writes:

[4.39.4] They report of Heracles further that Zeus enrolled him among the twelve gods but that he would not accept this honour; for it was impossible for him thus to be enrolled unless one of the twelve gods were first cast out; hence in his eyes it would be monstrous for him to accept an honour which involved depriving another god of his honour (source).

Update: 02-19-26

In March 2023, Twitter user @LinJKai posted a lovely 18 x 24-inch (45.72 x 60.96 cm) digital painting titled “Hercules as Vajrapani” (fig. 17). It depicts HV, the 12 labors, and various Greek gods in Tibetan thangka style. I adore this so much! I’d love to commission a physical copy.

Fig. 17 – @LinJKai’s painting of HV (larger version).

Update: 02-20-26

I originally couldn’t think of a feat of strength for HV that would outdo Monkey, but something has come to mind. In JTTW chapter 33, a demon uses the “Magic of Moving Mountains and Pouring Out Oceans” (Yishan daohai fashu, 移山倒海法術) to drop two holy landmasses on Monkey in the hope of incapacitating him. This does nothing to slow him down, though, so the fiend drops a third peak. But since the last ridge, Mount Tai (Taishan, 泰山), is considered the heaviest concept in Chinese philosophy, it instantly overpowers the Great Sage’s strength and pins him to the earth (see this article).

Now, imagine that Wukong uses the same magic to call up a column of mountains, perhaps capped with Mt. Tai, overhead (fig. 18), but not even this is enough to stop the Buddha’s protector. The Greco-Buddhist hero would continue to fight as if nothing is pressing down on him. This would surely frighten Monkey.

I like this because the Great Sage’s defeat in chapter 33 would thus be a call back to the punishment that he tried and failed to dish out during his fight with HV.

Fig. 18 – Imagine that the column of mountains above HV’s head looks something like this pile of stones (larger version). Image found here.

Update: 02-25-26

While writing the original article, I feared that I mischaracterized Heracles as being jovial with Wukong in what should have been a tense situation. However, I’ve found info that supports this. Galinsky (1972) explains:

Being close to the people as he was, Hesiod also portrayed Herakles as the folksy, jolly good fellow. The few fragments that have been preserved of the Wedding of Ceyx give us some indication of this. One of the main subjects of the poem was the wedding-feast of Ceyx and Alcyone at which Herakles intervened. He crashed the party, justifying himself with jovial magnificence: ‘Of their own accord good men betake themselves to good men’s feasts.’ This phrase became so proverbial that it was quoted, among others, by Plato in the Symposium. The remark shows that Hesiod attributed to Herakles the quality, which he undoubtedly found in the folktales, of taking himself lightly, and it kept our hero from becoming too lofty and untouchable. Much of the rest of the poem seems to have been concerned with Herakles’ prodigious appetite, a theme on which the comic poets were to seize with so much glee. Having stilled his hunger, Herakles entertained the party by proposing several riddles (p. 16-17).

Update: 02-28-26

Regarding the original DEATH BATTLE! episode, it’s interesting to note that Heracles has previously fought and killed a monstrous opponent born from an egg, just like Sun Wukong. Ibycus (6th century BCE) records the Greek hero saying: “I slew the white-horsed lads, the children of Molione, of the same age, equal-headed, single-bodied, both born in a silver egg” (Bowra, 1961, p. 245).

Update: 03-28-26

Above, I wrote, “With the presence of Greeks in Central and South Asia, I imagine he [Buddha] would also visit the Olympian gods who had gained some influence in the region.” Well, I’ve thought of a way to connect the structures of the mythic Greek and JTTW universes:

I’ve previously discussed how the novel is set in the Buddhist disc-world system—i.e. a flat earth (see below). It’s interesting to note that the archaic Greeks also believed in a flat earth. The wonderful Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology explains:

As viewed from their perspective, as people who lived on the edge of a land mass, it might naturally have appeared to take the form of a circular disc, more or less level except were hills or mountains rose up from it, capped by the immense roof or dome of the sky. On the one side the sun and stars could be seen rising above the horizon, while on the other they disappeared at their setting; and since they always rose on the same side, in the east, they must presumably have made their way back again, either under the ground or by some other hidden route. It was imagined that the outermost boundary of this disc of the earth was formed by the stream of Ocean (Oceanos), which was not an ocean in the modern sense but a great river flowing in a circle around the edges of the earth. The sky was envisioned as a substantial roof or, later, dome sometimes said to be made of bronze or iron, which rose to a considerable, though not immeasurable, height above the earth. Zeus and the higher gods could be imagined as residing in the sky itself, or else on the summit of Mt Olympos in north-eastern Greece, hence their familiar name of Olympian gods. If one could pile three large mountains one above another, as the gigantic Aloadai set out to do when they revolted against the gods …, it would be sufficient to form a ladder to heaven (Hard, 2020, p. 17).

Heracles has a few connections to Ocean. [7]

Now, imagine that the purview of the Olympian gods and the borders of their disc-world (fig. 19) expand as Greeks traveling eastward bring their faith with them to Central and South Asia. This would allow the Greek cosmos to eventually overlap with the Buddhist realm (fig. 20). (The reverse would be true for westward-traveling Buddhists.) The result would look sort of like a Venn diagram, with the double-pointed oval in the middle indicating where the two realms intersect on our Earth.

Fig. 19 (Left) – A reconstruction of the Greek world based on the writings of Homer (larger version). The landmass is surrounded by the god Ocean. From Atlas of Ancient & Classical Geography (1928, plate 1). Fig. 20 (Right) – A diagram of the Buddhist cosmos (larger version). Mt. Sumeru is flanked by a continent and two islands on each of its four sides. The land is also surrounded by water; in this case, four great oceans. Adapted from Buswell & Lopez (2014, p. xxxii).

I should point out that JTTW changes the traditional structure of the Buddhist cosmos by placing China in the Southern Continent and moving India to the Western Continent (refer back to this article). Therefore, the western portion of the expanding Greek cosmos would more easily line up with the Buddhist cosmos.

Notes:

1) Translation changed slightly. Although the English reads “a hundred yards,” the original Chinese says “100 zhang” (bai zhang, 百丈). One zhang is ten Chinese feet, or roughly 10.43 ft (3.18 m) (Jiang, 2005, p. xxxi). Therefore, 100 zhang would be 1,043 ft (314 m).

2) Yu (Wu & Yu, 2012) translates jingang (金剛) as “Diamond Guardians” (vol. 3, p. 24, for example). I’m changing it to just Vajra since the term can mean both “lightning” and “diamond.” I don’t want to confuse anyone.

3) Yes, this information comes from Wikipedia, but I’m the one who originally added it under the screenname “Ghostexorcist.” See this edit history, for example.

4) The English translation just says “tank” (Li, 1996/2017, p. 184), but the original Chinese word chi (池) can also mean “pond.”

5) The li (里) is a Chinese measurement of distance. English works usually translate it as “mile.” However, it equals roughly 1/3rd of a mile or 1/2 of a kilometer.

6) Herodotus mentions mountain lions attacking the caravan camels of Xerxes on his route through Greece (The Histories, 7.125–126). If such thing routinely happened to local travelers, this would have affected regular lion hunts. And this 16th-century BCE Minoan blade suggests that lion hunts go back centuries.

7) Heracles uses the Sun-God‘s goblet in order to sail Ocean to the destination of his tenth labor (Library, 2.5.10). However, according to Pherecydes, “Ocean, to make trial of him, caused the goblet to heave wildly on the waves. Herakles was about to shoot him with an arrow; and the Ocean was afraid, and bade him give over” (Library, 2.5.10, n. 7).

Also, the extent of his tenth labor set the limit for human travel:

[S]ince the Pillars or Columns of Heracles—the name usually associated with the twin rocks standing astride the Straits of Gibraltar—afforded the only known connection between the familiar Mediterranean and alien Ocean, they became a vivid symbol of the gateway or barrier between inner and outer worlds. For the most part they stood in the Greek imagination as a forbidding non plus ultra, a warning to mariners not to proceed any further. Pindar, for example, adopts this landmark as a paradigm of the limits to human daring, in his celebrations of victorious athletes:

Now Theron, approaching the outer limit in his feats of strength, touches the Pillars of Heracles. What lies beyond cannot be approached by wise men or unwise. I shall not try, or I would be a fool. (Ol. 3.4–5)

As a man of beauty, who accomplishes feats beautiful as himself, the son of Aristophanes may set forth on supreme, manly endeavors; but not easily across the untrodden sea, beyond the Pillars of Heracles, which that hero-god set in place, as a famed witness of the furthest limit of seafaring. (Nem. 3.20–23)

By the uttermost deeds of strength did these men touch the Pillars of Heracles, an achievement all their own; let none pursue valor any farther than that. (Isthm. 4.11–14)

In these passages Pindar measures the prowess of his athlete patrons in geographic terms, seeing their victories as journeys into distant space; but these journeys must end, he insists, before they enter the forbidden realm of Ocean. The Pillars have here come to stand for the boundary of the human condition itself: To pass beyond them is the prerogative of god alone, or of mythic figures like Heracles who manage to bridge the human and divine (Romm, 1992, pp. 17-18).

Sources:

Atlas of Ancient & Classical Geography. (1928). London & Toronto: J.M Dent & Sons, LTD.; New York: E. P. Dutton & Co.

Bowra, C. M. (1961). Greek Lyric Poetry from Alcman to Simonides. United Kingdom: Clarendon Press.

Buswell, R. E., & Lopez, D. S. (2014). The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Finglass, P. J. (2021). LABOR X: The Cattle of Geryon and the Return from Tartessus. In D. Ogden (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Heracles (pp. 135-148). United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.

Galinsky, K. (1972). The Herakles Theme: The Adaptations of the Hero in Literature from Homer to the Twentieth Century. New Jersey: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers.

Hard, R. (2020). The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology (8th ed.). London & New York: Taylor & Francis.

Jiang, Y. (2005). The Great Ming Code / Da Ming Lu. Vancouver, Wa: University of Washington Press.

Li, R. (Trans.) (2017). The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions. Berkeley, CA: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research. (Original work published 1996) Retrieved from https://www.bdkamerica.org/product/the-great-tang-dynasty-record-of-the-western-regions/

March, J. (2021). LABOR I: The Nemean Lion. In D. Ogden (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Heracles (pp. 29-44). United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.

Matyszak, P. (2015). Hercules: The First Superhero (An Unauthorized Biography). Canada: Monashee Mountain Publishing.

Pache, C. (2021). Birth and Childhood. In D. Ogden (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Heracles (pp. 3-12). United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.

Romero-Gonzalez, D. (2021). Deianeira, Death, and Apotheosis. In D. Ogden (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Heracles (pp. 266-280). United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.

Romm, J. S. (1992). The Edges of the Earth in Ancient Thought: Geography, Exploration, and Fiction. Princeton University Press.

Salapata, G. (2021). LABOR XI: The Apples of Hesperides. In D. Ogden (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Heracles (pp. 149-164). United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.

Shahar, M. (2008). The Shaolin Monastery: History, Religion, and the Chinese Martial Arts. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press.

Van der Geer, A. A. E. (2022). The Great Monkey King: Carvings of Primates in Indian Religious Architecture (pp. 431-455). In B. Urbani, D. Youlatos, & A. Antczak (Eds.), World Archaeoprimatology: Interconnections of Humans and Nonhuman Primates in the Past. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.

Wivell, C.S. (1994). The Story of How the Monk Tripitaka of the Great Country of T’ang Brought Back the Sūtras. In V. Mair (Ed.), The Columbia Anthology of Traditional Chinese Literature (pp. 1181-1207). New York: Columbia University Press.

Wu, C., & Yu, A. C. (2012). The Journey to the West (Vols. 1-4) (Rev. ed.). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press.

A Realistic Retelling of Journey to the West?

Jim R. McClanahan 8 Comments

Last updated: 10-04-2025

I was recently asked about the existence of a realistic retelling of Journey to the West (Xiyouji, 西遊記, 1592) that follows the adventures of the historical monk Xuanzang (玄奘, 602-664). To my knowledge, it doesn’t exist, but this is something I’ve thought about to some extent. In this article, I would like to discuss what a realistic journey might be like.

1. Literature vs History

There are some important distinctions that first need to be made between the literary and historical stories before we can speculate about our version.

1.1. Literature

  1. The story is set in a syncretic Buddho-Daoist universe modeled on Hindo-Buddhist cosmic geography. This flat world-disc features four cardinal continents (of various shapes) floating in a great ocean around the four faces of Mt. Sumeru. The Daoist heaven sits atop this mountain, taking the place of the “Heaven of the Thirty-Three” from the original Buddhist structure. China is located in the Southernmost continent (the original structure, however, associated this with India). India and the Buddha’s paradise are moved to the Westernmost continent (since it is West of China in OUR world).
  2. The literary Xuanzang (fig. 1) is the final reincarnation of “Master Golden Cicada” (Jinchan zi, 金蟬子), the fictional second disciple of the Buddha who was exiled to China for ten lifetimes as punishment for being inattentive during a heavenly lecture.
  3. His father, Prefect Chen (陳), is murdered by a bandit, who takes his government post and pregnant wife for his own. Chen’s son is born in Jiangzhou (Jiangxi) sometime after, forcing his mother to float the baby down the river in a basket (à la Moses) in order to save his life. He is found and raised by the old abbot of a Buddhist temple. Eighteen years later, after receiving his ordination, the monk Xuanzang is reunited with his mother and magically-revived father, and the bandit-turned-official is arrested and executed (ch. 9).
  4. He leaves China in 640 with the blessing of the Tang emperor (ch. 13) and returns in 654 (ch. 100). [1]
  5. The expressed purpose of his mission is to obtain the correct scriptures needed to perform a grand mass to release untold souls from suffering in hell (see note #1 here).
  6. He is portrayed as a proponent of the Chan (禪; Sk: Dhyāna) school of Buddhism.
  7. Xuanzang is an extremely whiny character modeled after a Confucian official who is blindly loyal to the throne, extolls virtues of propriety, and complains about everything. He is depicted as having an encyclopedic knowledge of Buddhist scripture, but he doesn’t always understand the underlying meaning, something that Monkey sometimes explains to him (see note #8 here).
  8. He initially leaves with a few human disciples, who are eventually eaten (ch. 13), and takes on the monstrous disciples Sun Wukong (ch. 13), Zhu Bajie (ch. 19), and Sha Wujing (ch. 22) along the way.
  9. These latter disciples aren’t “Chinese.” They come from different countries among said continents. For example, Monkey’s Flower Fruit Mountain is an island located to the east of the Easternmost continent (refer back to here).
  10. Xuanzang spends all of his time traveling or trying to escape from a monster or spirit who has kidnapped him. No time is spent studying languages or scripture.
  11. All of the kingdoms encountered conveniently speak (and to some extent dress) like the Chinese.
  12. The group receives the scriptures directly from the Buddha in the Western Paradise of India and are magically transported back to China.
  13. After performing the grand mass, Xuanzang and his disciples are magically returned to the Western Paradise, where they receive an elevation in spiritual rank (ch. 100) (Wu & Yu, 2012).

Fig. 1 – A print of the literary Xuanzang from a Qing-era edition of Journey to the West (larger version). Originally found on Wikimedia Commons. Fig. 2 – An anonymous 14th-century Japanese painting of the historical Xuanzang on the road to India (larger version). Originally found on Wikipedia.

1.2. History

  1. The real Xuanzang (fig. 2) obviously existed in OUR world, the Earth.
  2. He was born in Luoyang (Henan) to the aristocratic Chen (陳) family, the youngest of four boys.
  3. He followed in his oldest brothers footsteps by becoming a monk at eleven, receiving full ordination at twenty.
  4. He left China illegally in 629 and returned a celebrity in 645.
  5. The expressed purpose of his mission was to obtain scriptures that resolved contradictions in and expanded the corpus of the Chinese Buddhist canon.
  6. He initially traveled by himself within China, but later joined caravans in Central Asia and India, even having his own royal escorts at different times.
  7. He was exposed to different cultures, languages, and religions, the latter including Zoroastrianism and Vedism (early Hinduism).
  8. He was a proponent of the Yogācāra (Sk: “Yoga practice”; Ch: Weishi zong, 唯識宗, “Consciousness Only”) school of Buddhism.
  9. He was super brave and intelligent, with an encyclopedic knowledge of Buddhist and even Vedic literature. Apart from Buddhist schooling in his youth, much of this knowledge was gained during prolonged study abroad.
  10. He faced many problems on the trip back to China, even losing some of his hard-won scriptures in a fording accident.
  11. Xuanzang returned home with hundreds of scriptures, over one hundred Buddha relics, and tens of statues. He spent the remainder of his life translating texts, while also battling his celebrity. He died at the age of 61 (Brose, 2021).

2. Speculation

This is not meant to be exhaustive since trying to adapt every character and event from the novel would make it much too long. The point is to give the reader a basic understanding of what Xuanzang’s historical journey was like.

Everything prior to his birth would be nearly the same, including the monk’s previous incarnations and Sun Wukong, Zhu Bajie, and Sha Wujing’s respective early lives and punishments. But since the story will take place on Earth, the location of literary events will have to be placed in a real world context. For example, Monkey would have to be born on an island east of China. Japan is certainly an interesting option, with Mt. Fuji (Fujisan, 富士山) being a good candidate for his birthplace. Taiwan’s Mt. Jade (Yushan, 玉山) is another (see the 02-14-23 update below). Fun fact: Taiwan is known for its “Rock Macaques” (fig. 3). This is a fitting name considering that Sun is born from stone.

Fig. 3 – A Taiwanese Rock Macaque (larger version). Originally found here.

Placing Monkey’s past in a real world context opens the door to interesting possibilities in this adaptation. The novel describes him studying Buddho-Daoist arts under the Patriarch Subodhi in the Westernmost continent (i.e. India). But since Daoism didn’t exist in ancient India, he would have likely learned Hindo-Buddhist spiritual cultivation techniques and philosophy, thereby becoming a competent (albeit short-tempered and naughty) rishi. Therefore, he would know how to read and speak the Pali/Sanskrit language of the different Buddhist and Vedic texts that Xuanzang would come to study. One implication is that Sun would be able to help his master if any language or philosophical barriers popped up. This means that his assistance would indirectly contribute to Xuanzang’s later translation of Buddhist scriptures in China!

2.1. Traveling to and Life in India

Xuanzang’s initial request to leave China was denied by the Tang court of Emperor Taizong. Undeterred, the monk traveled in secret towards the northwestern reaches of the empire in 629, eventually learning from a sympathetic official that he was to be arrested if caught (Brose, 2021, p. 16). He would likely have come across Monkey just prior to leaving China. Remember that chapter 13 also refers to Five Elements Mountain as the “Mountain of Two Frontiers” (Liangjie shan, 兩界山), the eastern half belonging to the Middle Kingdom and the western half belonging to Turkic peoples (Dada, 韃靼; a.k.a. “Tartars“) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 305). The Heavenly Mountain (Tianshan, 天山) (fig. 4) would therefore be a good spot for the trickster god’s earth prison as it stretches from Northwestern China into Central Asia.

Communication between master and disciple wouldn’t be an issue since Monkey would have likely picked up some Chinese during his early life and rebellion. The other disciples would be added at different spots along the route through Central Asia (see the 10-10-22 update below). But since Zhu and Sha have memories of their previous lives, they too would likely know Chinese.

Fig. 4 – The Heavenly Mountains (larger version). Originally found on Wikipedia.

Xuanzang’s Central Asian route took him through Sūyāb (Kyrgyzstan), Samarkand (Uzbekistan), the Kunduz River valley (Afghanistan), and then Balkh (Afghanistan). Here, the monk stopped for a month to study Sanskrit literature under Prajñākara before both of them left to cross the Hindu Kush Mountains. After Bamiyan (Afghanistan), both of them attended the required three-month “Rainy Retreat” at a Buddhist monastery in Kapisā (Afghanistan). This was a time of intense study (Brose, 2021, pp. 23-28). Xuanzang likely attended the three-month retreat every year of his journey, making this aspect of the historical story a major divergence from the novel. This means that, unless the various monsters or spirits tried attacking him in monasteries, his disciples would only see action during the time (days or weeks) that it took the group to travel to a new location.

Since the story is set in the real world, Daoism’s influence would fade as the group traveled westward. This then raises the question: If Sun Wukong requires divine assistance to help identify or defeat a powerful foe in, say, Central Asia, would he zip back to the Daoist heaven in China, or would he simply consult the local foreign gods and spirits? The former possibility would allow us to stick closer to the novel, but the latter would be far more interesting. The Iranic, Judeo-Christian, or Greek gods in that area might be willing to help thanks to the Buddha’s request. I could see this leading to some comical inter-faith drama: 

Foreign god: “Monkey Man, you have no power over us in this region!”

Sun Wukong: “Oh, really? Let me introduce you to my two friends [holds up fists], RIGHT and LEFT!”

But this might make the story a little too complex. And since Buddhism was present throughout Central Asia at one point or another, it would make more sense for Monkey to call on Buddhist deities for help. Either way, the story would have to be changed to accommodate gods and spirits outside of Daoism.

Prajñākara stayed in Kapisā, while Xuanzang headed for northern India. His travels took him through Nagarahāra (Afghanistan), Gandhāra (Afghanistan/Pakistan), the Swat Valley (Pakistan), Taxila (Pakistan), and Kashmir (India). He studied in the latter city for two years, while a team of twenty royally-appointed scribes copied extensive scriptures for him. For the next three years after this, he traveled through Cīnabhukti, Jālandhara, Śrughna, Matipura, and Kānyakubja, staying for a month or as long as a year in certain places to study with specialists in Buddhist and Vedic literature. Xuanzang later sailed down the Ganges River, where, according to legend, his priceless collection of Buddhist scriptures and imagery attracted the attention of Hindu pirates. When captured, he sunk into deep meditation while awaiting a sacrificial death by fire, but a strong, supernatural wind began throwing the world into chaos. Thinking that the attempted murder of the monk displeased their goddess Durga, the pirates begged for his forgiveness (Brose, 2021, pp. 30-35). This seems like a perfect demonstration of Sun Wukong’s powers. He would use this trick in place of outright murdering the bandits in order to avoid punishment via the golden headband.

Xuanzang traveled through areas of India where Buddhist institutions once flourished but had fallen into decay, some places being taken over by Hindu and Jain ascetics who practiced extreme forms of austerities. During this time, he also went about visiting all of the famous locations associated with the historical Buddha’s life but was dismayed to see some of those in ruins and/or abandoned. These included the garden where the Enlightened one was born (Lumbini, Nepal) (fig. 5), his father’s palace (Kapilavastu), where he lived as an adult (Jetavana), and the forest where he died (Kuśinagara). Xuanzang took the declining state of Indian Buddhism as proof that his time was the Latter Day of the Dharma (Brose, 2021, pp. 30-32 and 35-38). This surely strengthened his resolve to learn all he could and take back as many scriptures as possible to China in order to ensure that the religion continued to thrive there. His monstrous disciples would be the ones to tote this huge collection in place of human laborers.

Fig. 5 – A 2nd to 3rd-century Gandharan stone carving depicting the Buddha’s birth from his mother’s side in Lumbini (larger version). Originally found on Wikipedia.

The idea of monsters and spirits attacking the monk while he visits these once flourishing but now dilapidated Buddhist sites is somewhat comical. I think that the evil would live in the various ruins or in the forests and hills around said locations. This would mean that demonic mountain strongholds from the novel would be a rarity in this retelling.

Thankfully, though, Xuanzang was able to visit two places associated with the Buddha’s life that still flourished, namely the park where he gave his first sermon (Sarnath) and the area where he achieved enlightenment (Bodh Gayā). The monk was later invited to a grand Buddhist complex in Nālandā, where he became a disciple of Śīlabhadra, a learned master of the Yogācāra school. He studied in Nālandā for five years, receiving a special status that freed him from community duties so he could focus on his studies (Brose, 2021, pp. 37-45). After a failed trip to Sri Lanka, Xuanzang traveled around southern India and eventually studied for two years in Parvata. After returning to Nālandā and learning from various local masters for a few months, he studied for two years with Jayasena, a very knowledgeable lay disciple of Śīlabhadra (Brose, 2021, pp. 50-53).

The total of Xuanzang’s time spent studying in Nālandā and Parvata alone adds up to an astounding nine years. That is an awfully long time for Sun, Zhu, and Sha to see no action. Perhaps they too would live the life of monks and possibly resume their spiritual cultivation in order to better themselves. They could even help teach the clerics at the various institutions how to protect themselves, much like the famous Shaolin Monks (fig. 6). This might replace the episode in chapter 88 in which Monkey and his religious brothers accept three Indian princes as students. Sun could instead give a chosen cadre of monks super strength and divine longevity in a similar fashion.

Fig. 6 – A group of Shaolin monks practicing martial arts (larger version). Originally found here.

Xuanzang’s final year in India was apparently an eventful one. Apart from saving Nālandā from destruction by accepting a tyrannical king’s invitation to visit, he evidently took part in a number of life or death religious debates against Brahmins and Mainstream Buddhists. However, there is no evidence that the grandest of these ever took place. It might even be a later embellishment by Xuanzang’s disciple (Brose, 2021, pp. 53-60). Therefore, I think it should be left out of the retelling.

2.2. Return to and Life in China

I’m going to skip over the events just prior to Xuanzang leaving India, as well as the various trials and tribulations that he faced along the road to China. His disciples would certainly continue protecting him from any evil that still wished to capture the monk. This means that the various episodes could be spread out to the return journey as well.

Instead, I’d like to briefly discuss Xuanzang’s life after returning to the Middle Kingdom. Despite his illegal departure, the monk was welcomed home in 645 with open arms and became an instant celebrity. Emperor Taizong shortly thereafter asked him to compose an account of his travels, [2] the Great Tang Records on the Western Regions (Datang xiyou ji, 大唐西域記), which was finished in 646. The year before, he and a team of experts from all around the empire began translating the scriptures, but fame, official duties, and later unwanted changes to group members by the proceeding Emperor Gaozong hindered the project over the years. The monk was expected to entertain aristocratic guests and donors, and he often traveled to perform the ordination of hundreds of monks at newly built monasteries. This took a toll on his body, which was apparently plagued by a chronic illness that affected his heart and bones. Wishing to escape his celebrity and return to more steady translation work, he requested and failed many times over the years to be relocated to more remote institutions. Instead, he was forced to stick close to the Tang capital, where, years later, he was lucky to escape political upheaval in the court that saw some of his official friends exiled or even executed. Apart from this, Xuanzang was forced to defend himself against critiques on two fronts. On one side were Daoists who disliked his fame and railed against the foreign nature of Buddhism (Daoism was after all the state religion at that time). And on the other, some Buddhists heavily criticized his translation method, as well as his Yogācāra philosophy, which differed from other Mahāyāna teachings. At the end of his life, the poor monk injured his leg in an accident and was bedridden for two months before dying at the age of 61 in 664. His death was apparently followed by miraculous lights in the sky. [3]

Now, I can already hear some of my readers asking: What happened to his disciples? Does everyone still achieve an elevation in spiritual rank? Monkey and his religious brothers would have left by this time. Whereas the pilgrim’s meet the Buddha face to face in India at the end of the novel, he would instead manifest before them (or at least jointly in their dreams) after they successfully transported the scriptures to China. This is when he would offer them their respective promotions, Monkey becoming a Buddha, Sha Wujing an arhat, and Zhu an altar cleaner. They would thereafter leave to enjoy their divine lives in the Western Paradise (see the 11-04-23 update below). However, I think Xuanzang would postpone his enlightenment until he finished translating the scriptures. Monkey might even visit his former master in his dreams and encourage him to continue his work even when he is old and sick. The many hardships that the monk faces towards the end of his life would therefore make his final ascension all the more bittersweet.

I’m interested to hear reader’s ideas on where they might insert famous episodes into this more realistic setting. Please let me know in the comments below or in an email (see the “contact” button above).

Update: 10-10-22

It turns out that Sha Wujing would be the first disciple recruited on the road to India in our more realistic retelling. As I show in this article, his antecedent appears in various retellings of Xuanzang’s journey as a stern, encouraging spirit or even a heaven-sent protector.

The monk’s embellished biography notes that, while traveling west of the Jade Gate, he chose to bypass various watchtowers on his illegal journey by trekking though the 800 li Gashun Gobi desert (Mohe yanqi, 莫賀延磧). But after only 100 li, Xuanzang lost his surplus of water when the heavy bag slipped from his hands. He went without drink for four days, all the while chanting the name of Avalokiteśvara (i.e. Guanyin) for deliverance, as well as the Heart Sutra to keep demons at bay (Huili & Li, 1995, pp. 26-27). On the early morning of the fifth day, a divine mist lulled him to sleep, where:

[He] dreamed that he saw a giant deity several tens of feet tall, holding a [halberd] and a flag in his hands. The deity said to him, “Why are you sleeping here instead of forging ahead?” (Huili & Li, 1995, p. 28).

即於睡中夢一大神長數丈，執戟麾曰：「何不強行，而更臥也！」

After he awoke and mounted his horse, it veered in a different direction than Xuanzang intended and arrived at a much needed oasis, which was apparently provided by Guanyin (Huili & Li, 1995, p. 28).

However, a Tang-era Japanese source appearing in a work of the 11th-century states that the “Spirit of the Deep Sands” (Shensha shen, 深沙神) physically interacted with Xuanzang, calling himself the monk’s “guardian spirit” and even providing him with food and water (Dudbridge, 1970, p. 19). The same source also states that he had previously appeared before the earlier monk Faxian (法顯, 337-422) in a ghastly, demonic form (fig. 7):

I am manifested in an aspect of fury. My head is like a crimson bowl. My two hands are like the nets of heaven and earth. From my neck hang the heads of seven demons. About my limbs are eight serpents, and two demon heads seem to engulf my (nether-) limbs… (Dudbridge, 1970, p. 20).

Fig. 7 – A 13th or 14th-century Japanese carving of the Spirit of the Deep Sands (larger version).

The spirit’s great height influenced Sha’s whopping twelve Chinese foot (zhang er, 丈二; 12.6 feet / 3.84 m) frame (Wu & Yu 2012, vol. 2, p. 51), his necklace of heads was the model for our hero’s necklace of skulls (Wu & Yu 2012, vol. 1, p. 230), and the “Moving Sands” (Liusha, 流沙) of his harsh desert home served as the basis for Wujing’s “Flowing-Sands River” (Liusha he, 流沙河) (Wu & Yu 2012, vol. 1, p. 421).

I would like to combine details from the Chinese and Japanese sources, making the Spirit of the Deep Sands a physical being, and instead of the pearly thread-wrapped wooden staff wielded by Sha in the novel (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 428), the deity would use the aforementioned halberd. I’d also borrow from the novel, having him exiled to earth for an offense in heaven, but in place of the Flowing-Sands River, be banished to the desert to await the coming of Xuanzang (Wu & Yu 2012, vol. 1, p. 210).

Another interesting change that just occurred to me would be to completely reverse the order of Xuanzang’s disciples. Even though the literary monk happens upon them in the order of Sun Wukong, Zhu Bajie, and Sha Wujing, Guanyin first recruits them in the order of Sha, Zhu, and Sun (Wu & Yu 2012, vol. 1, pp. 207-216). Making Monkey the lowest-ranking, yet most powerful religious brother would lead to some funny situations. Sha and Zhu might try to order him around at first, but they would soon learn not to test the powerful monkey rishi’s patience. I can see them begging him to intervene when they can’t defeat a given evil.

Perhaps Zhu would be recruited in Central Asia, while Monkey might be discovered under a mountain closer to India. What say you?

Update: 12-17-22

Journey to the West characterizes the Buddha as having a corporeal form. This is revealed in chapter 55 when a Scorpion Spirit (Xiezi jing, 蝎子精) stings and hurts him:

Once upon a time she [the scorpion] happened to be listening to a lecture in the Thunderclap Monastery. When Tathagata saw her, he wanted to push her away with his hand, but she turned around and gave the left thumb of the Buddha a stab. Even Tathagata found the pain unbearable! (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 72).

他前者在雷音寺聽佛談經，如來見了，不合用手推他一把，他就轉過鉤子，把如來左手中拇指上扎了一下。如來也疼難禁 …

I take this to mean that the Scorpion Spirit was imbued with “dharma power” (fali, 法力) while listening to the Enlightened One’s lectures. This makes sense as Campany (1985) explains that this is the penultimate power in the novel’s Buddho-Daoist universe.

(Baring a discrepancy in chapter six, [4] the Scorpion Spirit is the only figure in all of Journey to the West shown capable of piercing the Monkey King’s adamantine hide (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 65). She does so with her “horse-felling poison stake” (daoma du zhuang, 倒馬毒樁), which is actually her stinger (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 72).)

But since this article focuses on a real world journey set over a 1,000 years after the Enlightened One’s death, I would like to suggest that similar exposure to the spiritual power of the Buddha might give other demons or spirits a similar boost. In this case, the items granting this power would be relics associated with Shakyamuni.

Strong (2004) notes that there are three main types of Buddha relics: 1) those of the body left over from his cremation (hair, teeth, nails, bones, and Śarīra beads); 2) those that he used (walking staff, alms bowl, robes, etc.); and 3) those that he taught (i.e. lessons from scripture) (p. 8). I think that the first and second categories would be perfect for our story, especially the Śarīra (Sheli/zi, 舍利/子). These pearl-like beads were associated with the wish-fulfilling Cintāmaṇi (Ruyi baozhu, 如意寶組) jewel in East Asia (Strong, 2004, p. 10), so I could see them granting spirits power. [5]

Evil forces might sneak into monasteries to retrieve such items in a bid to gain extra power in order to fuel their nefarious machinations, assert their will on the surrounding populous, and/or to defeat Monkey and his religious brothers, thereby allowing them to gain immortality by eating the Tang Monk. Protecting the relics would, therefore, be one reason to keep the demon disciples busy during Xuanzang’s long years of study.

Update: 12-29-22

It turns out that Journey to the West has śarīra beads. In fact, they are mentioned at least 18 times throughout the novel. One example is a treasure belonging to the Yellow-Robed Demon (Huangpao guai, 黃袍怪). Chapter 31 reads:

Leading Pilgrim [Sun Wukong], the fiend [Yellow Robe] took his companion into the murky depth of the cave before spitting out from his mouth a treasure having the size of a chicken egg. It was a śarīra [shelizi, 舍利子] of exquisite internal elixir. Secretly delighted, Pilgrim said to himself, “Marvelous thing! It’s unknown how many sedentary exercises had been performed, how many years of trials and sufferings had elapsed, how many times the union of male and female forces had taken place before this śarīra of internal elixir was formed. What great affinity it has today that it should encounter old Monkey!” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, pp. 80-81). [6]

那怪攜著行者，一直行到洞裡深遠密閉之處。卻從口中吐出一件寶貝，有雞子大小，是一顆舍利子玲瓏內丹。行者心中暗喜道：「好東西耶。這件物不知打了多少坐工，煉了幾年磨難，配了幾轉雌雄，煉成這顆內丹舍利。今日大有緣法，遇著老孫。」

As can be seen, Yellow Robe’s śarīra is portrayed as the hard-won product of spiritual cultivation. This agrees with Strong’s (2004) statement that Buddhists believed such beads were “brought on not only by the fire of cremation but also by the perfections of the saint (in this case the Buddha) (emphasis added) whose body they re-present” (p. 12).

But in our realistic retelling, Yellow Robes could have stolen the treasure from a monastery or stupa.

Update: 01-04-2023

I mentioned in the original post that Sun Wukong would study Hindo-Buddhist arts and become a talented rishi. The Saṃyutta Nikāya (Sk: संयुक्त निकाया; Ch: Xiang ying bu, 相應部, c. 250 BCE) notes that such cultivators develop a host of supernatural powers once they master the four mental qualities (Pali: Iddhipāda):

  1. Multiplying the body
  2. Vanishing and reappearing
  3. Passing through solid objects (walls, ramparts, mountains, etc.)
  4. Diving into the earth like water
  5. Walking on water like earth
  6. Traveling through space
  7. Touching the sun and moon
  8. Hearing all sounds, both human and divine
  9. Knowing the minds of others
  10. Having memories of all of one’s past lives
  11. Knowing the future rebirths (and their causes) of all beings
  12. Liberation from the filth of the world through supreme wisdom (Bodhi, 2000, pp. 1727-1728)

Monkey already exhibits several of these powers in the original narrative.

Update: 01-29-23

Here’s another example of the śarīra beads appearing in Journey to the West. Chapter 62 reads:

This all came about because our All Saints Old Dragon once gave birth to a daughter by the name of Princess All Saints, who was blessed with the loveliest features and the most extraordinary talents. She took in a husband by the name of Nine-Heads, who also had vast magic powers. Year before last, he came here with the Dragon King and, exerting great divine strength, sent down a rainstorm of blood to have the treasure pagoda defiled. Then he stole the sarira Buddhist treasure from the building. Thereafter the princess also went up to the great Heaven where she stole the nine-leaved agaric, which the Lady Queen Mother planted before the Hall of Divine Mists. The plant and the Buddhist treasure are both kept now at the bottom of the lagoon, lighting up the place with their golden beams and colored hues night and day (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 172).

因我萬聖老龍生了一個女兒，就喚做萬聖公主。那公主花容月貌，有二十分人才。招得一個駙馬，喚做九頭駙馬，神通廣大。前年與龍王來此，顯大法力，下了一陣血雨，污了寶塔，偷了塔中的舍利子佛寶。公主又去大羅天上，靈霄殿前，偷了王母娘娘的九葉靈芝草，養在那潭底下，金光霞彩，晝夜光明。

This supports the idea of evil attacking monasteries, and raining down blood would be one method of deconsecrating said locations.

Update: 02-14-23

Above, I mentioned that Japan or Taiwan would be good candidates for the Mountain of Flowers and Fruit, but I now feel that I didn’t give enough context. As I explain in this article (and briefly in sec. 1.1 above), Buddhist cosmic geography portrays the world as four cardinal continents surrounding a great mountain. Journey to the West changes the original system by associating China with the southern continent and moving India to the western continent. If we continue this trend by associating the other two continents with real countries, the north would be Russia or Mongolia and the east would be Korea (fig. 8). And since the Mountain of Flowers and Fruit is said to be an island east of the eastern most continent, Japan would be the best choice (fig. 9). This means Sun would be a Snow Macaque.

 Fig. 9 – A top view of Buddhist cosmic geography overlaid with the names of real world countries (larger version). Adapted from Buswell & Lopez, 2014, pp. xxxi. Fig 10 – Detail from a map of East Asia (larger version). Map found here.

Update: 08-26-23

Tumblr user digitalagepulao has drawn lovely versions of the JTTW pilgrims (fig. 11). This is for their own “Expedition to the West au” (JTTW alternate universe) storyline based on the info presented above in the original article. They explain their design choices based on the countries where the disciples are recruited:

Sha Wujing (435cm): His outfit is mostly inspired by Mongolian clothes since he’s found in the Gobi desert stretch of the journey. His bangles are made of fossil bone, and he can use the waist cloth as a headwrap during adverse weather. His markings are inspired by African Lungfish and Mudfish fins, as they are species that exist somewhere between water and dry air. The beasts on his knees are an extension of him, and he can see and speak through them as needed. His beard and long hair can have Ghibli physics depending on his mood and emotions.

Zhu Wuneng (~300cm): Inspired by Northern Tibetan clothes, as that’s the region the group recruits him. Traditional clothes tend to have way more accessories and golden details so I had to simplify a bit. His features are a mix of wild boars and Indonesian babirusa, with the iconic bristles on his head. I leaned on ceremonial Tibetan swords and necklace beads for the decorations on his rake. His vest can be closed, he just prefers not to most of the time.

Sun Wukong (125cm): I’ve already commented on his design over here, but I’ll elaborate that the yellow shirt is the one he gained from Tripitaka soon after he was released, while the pants and red half-robe were the garments he was given by Guan Yin. The hoops on his feet and purple beads were reacquired back in Huaguoshan when he first fled the pilgrimage, heading to his family instead of Ao Guang’s palace. (A-ma and Jinju gave them to him so he’ll always have something to home to remember them by, as well as where he first started, as the beads were gained during his lessons with Subodhi.)

Tripitaka (163cm): This is but one of his many outfits since travel can be rough on clothes, and even more so when you get kidnapped by demons and thrown off your horse all the time. He wears the usual orange monk robes, with some kind of travel clothes over them. He gains some fur boots from Boquin for cold weather but usually prefers sandals most of the time. He seldom uses the cassock and crown he received from Guan Yin, save for when he pays respects to temples and holy sites, but the staff is a constant companion.

Ao Lie (167cm, 130cm at the shoulder as horse): Being effectively in exile until the journey is complete, he wears less fancy clothes than he usually would as a prince, but his status still shows. I tried to balance more casual hanfu of the era with some armor parts, like the waist guard and armored boots. He was given the skill to shapeshift into a horse by Guan Yin when she commanded him to wait for the chosen pilgrim monk, so he can shift at will, but preferably when the tack has been taken off. Speaking of, tack is lost and replaced multiple times during the journey, so I didn’t depict any specific one.

Fig. 11 – Digitalagepulao’s JTTW character designs (larger version). Used with permission.

Update: 11-04-2023

Above, I stated: “They [Sun Wukong, Zhu Bajie, and Sha Wujing] would thereafter leave to enjoy their divine lives in the Western Paradise.” But I’ve never really liked the idea that Monkey would forever abandon his people. This is especially true since his rebellion led to heaven decimating the monkeys and burning their cave (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, p. 31). So, I think a better ending for this historical version would be for the “Victorious Fighting Buddha” (fig. 12) to return to the Mountain of Flower and Fruit, where he transforms it into his own Pure Land (Jingtu, 淨土). The monkeys killed in years passed would be reborn there, and everyone would receive periodic lessons on the dharma between bouts of play. It would be a paradise even grander than when the Great Sage was at the height of his power.

Fig. 12 – Monkey as the Victorious Fighting Buddha (larger version). Imagery based on the iconography of the historical Yuddhajaya Buddha. Art by NingadudeXx.

Update: 10-04-25

Here’s an article where I propose a more natural reason for Wukong and the Greek hero Heracles to fight each other. It’s based on the above story idea.

Story Idea: Sun Wukong vs Heracles / Hercules

Note:

1) The novel adds four more fictional years to a historical reign period (see section 1 here).

2) The Emperor’s true purpose in asking for the travelogue was to gain information pertinent to military campaigns against Turkic forces west of China (Brose, 2021, pp. 75-76).

3) See chapter 3 in Brose (2021).

4) Chapter six reads: “They bound him with ropes and punctured his breastbone with a knife, so that he could transform no further” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 186). But this is not stated or implied to be a form of physical punishment. It serves only to keep Monkey in his base form. The blade is mentioned again in chapter seven: “Arriving at the Tushita Palace, Laozi loosened the ropes on the Great Sage, pulled out the weapon from his breastbone, and pushed him into the Brazier of Eight Trigrams” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 189).

5) I guess the beads would be swallowed or kept close to the body. Their holy power would surely kill lesser devils but empower cultivator-demon kings.

6) Source altered slightly. I’ve made it more accurate.

Source:

Bodhi, B. (2000). The Connected Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Saṃyutta Nikāya; Translated from the Pāli by Bhikkhu Bodhi (Vols. 1-2). Boston: Wisdom Publications.

Brose, B. (2021). Xuanzang: China’s Legendary Pilgrim and Translator. Boulder, Colorado: Shambhala Publications, Inc.

Buswell, R. E. , & Lopez, D. S. (2014). The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism. Princeton University Press.

Campany, R. (1985). Demons, Gods, and Pilgrims: The Demonology of the Hsi-yu Chi. Chinese Literature: Essays, Articles, Reviews (CLEAR), 7(1/2), 95-115. doi:10.2307/495195

Dudbridge, G. (1970). The Hsi-Yu Chi: A Study of Antecedents to the Sixteenth-Century Chinese Novel. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press.

Huili, & Li, R. (1995). A Biography of the Tripiṭaka Master of the Great Ci’en Monastery of the Great Tang Dynasty. Berkeley: Numata Center for Buddhist translation and research.

Strong, J. S. (2004). Relics of the Buddha. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Wu, C., & Yu, A. C. (2012). The Journey to the West (Vols. 1-4) (Rev. ed.). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press.

Monkey Boxing: The Connection Between Primates and Martial Arts in Ancient China

Jim R. McClanahan 1 Comment

Last updated: 12-11-2021

Look up the terms “monkey” or “ape” in the dictionary and you’ll find that they serve as verbs meaning to mimic the movements or actions of another. This is because monkeys and apes have a propensity for observation and mimicry. Being primates ourselves, humans are no different. But interestingly this mimicry sometimes mirrors our primate cousins. Chinese martial arts, for example, has developed several primate-based fighting arts, including White Ape Connected Arms boxing (Baiyuan tongbei quan, 白猿通背拳) and several flavors of Monkey boxing (Houquan, 猴拳), and other styles have even adopted primate techniques, such as the monkey footwork of Praying Mantis boxing (Tanglang quan, 螳螂拳). Humans have long marveled at the physical prowess and acrobatic mastery of apes and monkeys. So it’s only natural that boxers would want to incorporate the powerful arm movements and awe-inspiring leaps and flips of primates into various fighting arts. But how long have our cousins been associated with martial arts in Chinese culture, and when and how did primate-based martial arts develop?

Two approaches can be used in an attempt to answer both questions. The first method involves charting similarities in techniques shared between modern regional primate-based Chinese martial arts styles and relying on folk lineages, ethnographic data, and (when possible) historical manuals to discover the earliest vestiges of primate boxing in China. A second method is to search for references to primate-based martial arts in the historical record. A benefit of the first approach would be pinpointing the areas in China where these styles likely first emerged in recent history. The downside is that martial arts are passed from teacher to student via embodied practices (e.g. fist and weapons forms and sparring), often without the material being recorded in a manual. This means such styles can’t be reliably traced beyond a certain time period. A benefit of the second approach is that it provides a deeper view of history, giving the researcher license to record not only the odd mention of historical boxing styles but also associations between primates and weapons and other forms of physical exercise in ancient folklore, literature, medicine, and religion. Obviously, the best approach would be a combination of the two. However, I lack the necessary encyclopedic knowledge of Chinese martial arts techniques. Such a grand project will have to wait for a more qualified researcher. I have instead decided to adopt the second approach.

This article is divided into five sections. The first presents a folk history for Tai Shing Pek Kwar, a popular modern form of Monkey boxing, to serve as an example of how such styles can be created. The second provides three references to premodern Monkey boxing appearing in military and travel writings of the 16th-century during the late Ming (1368-1644), pointing to the commonplace nature of the style. Here I suggest the lack of evidence for pre-Ming references to primate-based boxing points to the style emerging during this time. This section also gives examples of armed techniques associated with apes in military literature of the 16th and 17th-century. The third discusses the story of the noted literary monkey hero Sun Wukong (孫悟空), his portrayal as a master of armed and unarmed fighting, and how he bridges the gap between the aforementioned lack of pre-Ming boxing references and older material associating apes and monkeys with armed combat. The fourth presents ancient stories pitting a magic white ape against the martial skills of legendary Chinese heroes, including the archer Yang Youji (養由基, 7th-c. BCE) and the swordswoman the Maiden of Yue (Yuenu, 越女, 5th-c. BCE). And the fifth discusses ancient animal mimicry and suggests primate-based boxing is tied to war-like shamanic totemic dances and yoga-like daoyin calisthenics (8th-c. to 2nd-c. BCE). [1]

I. Tai Shing Pek Kwar Monkey boxing

There are three main styles of monkey boxing:

  • Shaolin Monkey – This combative style is said to have developed among various animal styles at the famed Shaolin Monastery (Shaolin si, 少林寺) in Henan province, China. Matsuda (2013) claims this particular style to be thousands of years old (p. 50); however, this has no basis in history, as will be explained below.
  • Wushu Monkey – This modern, non-combative style focuses on gymnastic leaps and flips for entertainment purposes. It is used in both Chinese opera and the floor routines of form competitions (video 1) (Matsuda, 2013, pp. 54-56).
  • Tai Shing Pek Kwar Monkey – This is the Cantonese variant of the Mandarin Dasheng Pigua men (大聖劈掛門), or the “Great Sage Ax School” of boxing. This combative style is said to be quite young, being a little over 100 years old (Matsuda, 2013, p. 56).

To this I add one more:

Video 1 – The first half of this video shows a youth performing Wushu Monkey for a form competition.

Tai Shing Pek Kwar is a combination of two different styles. The first, which I will only describe briefly, is Pek Kwar kyun (Pigua quan, 劈掛拳), a style that mimics the swinging of an ax, relying on the lively arm movements to generate power much like the Choy Li Fut style of southern China. It is said to have been created over two hundred years ago in Shandong (northern China) by a woodcutter named Ma Chi Ho (Matsuda, 2013, pp. 64-68). The weapons practiced by this style include the double-edged sword (jian, 劍), the single-edged saber (dao, 刀), and the staff (gun, 棍) (Matsuda, 2013, pp. 70-75).

The Tai Shing kyun (Dasheng quan, 大聖拳) style is said to have been founded in northern China around the year 1911 (the end of the Qing dynasty) by a prisoner named Kou Si (寇四). [2] After being sent to jail for murder, Kou discovered his cell faced a forest where he could observe the day-to-day lives of a troupe of monkeys. He noted five distinct behaviors among them that, when combined with his knowledge of Great Earth boxing (Di tang quan, 地趟拳), a type of ground combat, could be adapted for fighting.

  1. Lost Monkey (Mi Hou, 迷猴) – This form mimics the behavior of a frightened monkey, comprising periods of attack and retreat, with lots of rolling, low kicks, and quick, frantic running low to the ground (video 2).
  2. Stone Monkey (Shi Hou, 石猴) – This form mimics the behavior of an enraged alpha male, comprising slower but drastically more powerful fist, elbow, and knee strikes, all of which are delivered from a low stance.
  3. Tall Monkey (Qi Hou, 企猴) – This form mimics the behavior of a tall monkey, comprising longer, quicker swinging arm strikes and higher-level kicks.
  4. Drunken Monkey (Zui Hou, 醉猴) – This form mimics the behavior of intoxicated monkeys, comprising falls, swaying motions with broken footwork, and circular punches, all of which are delivered from a low stance.
  5. Wooden Monkey (Mu Hou, 木猴) – This form mimics the behavior of an intelligent, deceptive monkey, comprising quick, low attacks and rolls similar to the Lost Monkey, but feigning retreat only to turn and unleash strikes upon the pursuing opponent.

After perfecting the style, Kou Si is said to have named it “Great Sage boxing” in honor of the monkey hero Sun Wukong (Matsuda, 2013, pp. 86-116). This is a reference to the title taken by the character during his rebellion against heaven (see section III below). The weapons practiced by this style include the staff and the metal ring (Matsuda, 2013, pp. 118-131).

Video 2 – The Lost Monkey form.

II. Primates and martial arts during the Ming

Textural evidence for Monkey boxing actually predates Kou Si’s lineage, appearing in late-Ming dynasty (1368-1644) records. The first reference appears in the eighteen volume edition of famed general Qi Jiguang‘s (戚繼光, 1528-1588) (fig. 1) New Treatise on Military Efficiency (Jixiao Xinshu shiba juan ben, 紀效新書十八卷本), a military training manual completed in 1561 or 1562. The fourteenth chapter, titled “Chapter on the Fist Canon and the Essentials of Nimbleness” (Quanjing Jieyao Pian, 拳經捷要篇), reads:

Among the past and present fist specialists, the Song Great Founder had the Long Fist system with thirty-two positions. Moreover there are six pace and fist techniques, the Monkey Fist, and the Feinting Fist. The famous positions each have their own names, but in reality they are quite similar and scarcely differ from one another (Gyves, 1993, p. 34).

While Qi believed boxing had no place in armed conflict, he thought such training was useful as it strengthened soldiers’ bodies, coordinated their limbs, improved their weapons skills, and bolstered their courage (Gyves, 1993, pp. 33-37). Qi gathered what he considered the most efficient techniques to achieve this goal, meaning he consulted with many martial artists in the process. The fact that he mentions Monkey boxing suggests it was a common style among fighters of this time.

Qi Jiguang statue (Fuzhou) - small

Fig. 1 – A modern statue of General Qi Jiguang (larger version). Originally found on Wikipedia.

The second reference appears in Zheng Ruozeng’s (郑若曾, 1505-1580) Strategic Situation in Jiangnan (Jiangnan jinglue, 江南經略, 1564), which was written in response to the ever-present threat of the Woukou (倭寇), a conglomeration of Japanese, Chinese, and Korean sea bandits, invading China’s coastline. In the eighth volume, Zheng provides a long list of armed and unarmed martial arts, including the “thirty-six roads (forms) of Monkey boxing” (Houquan sanshiliu lu, 猴拳三十六路) (Zheng, 1564). Again, this suggests Monkey boxing was quite common.

The third appears in scholar Wang Shixing’s (王士性, 1547-1598) A Journey to Mt. Song (Song you ji, 嵩遊記), a travel log of the mountain on which the famed Shaolin monastery is located:

Martial monks again each came to present skills. With fists and staves contending, they struck as if flying. Their teacher with folded hands looked on. Among them was a monkey striker, spinning and leaping, just like a monkey… (Wells & Chang, 2004, p. 23).

This shows a single Shaolin warrior monk practiced Monkey boxing. But does this mean the style was part of the monastery’s official curriculum at this time? The answer is no. According to Shahar (2008), textual evidence suggests Shaolin officially took up boxing in the proceeding 17th-century, and the first styles practiced were Drunken Eight Immortals boxing (Zui baxian quan, 醉八仙拳) and Lost Track boxing (Mizong quan, 迷蹤拳), possibly followed by Plum Flower boxing (Meihua quan, 梅花拳) in the 18th-century. The monks adopted pugilism as a form of calisthenic exercise, later combining it with Daoyin (導引) calisthenics and spirituality to create a new form of self-cultivation. [3] Prior to this, the Shaolin monks were only known for their proficiency with the staff. Therefore, given the seeming commonplace nature of Monkey boxing during the late Ming, the monk could have learned the style from an outside source.

Modern folklore associated with one primate-based style, White Ape Connected Arms Boxing (Baiyuan tongbei / bi quan, 白猿通背 / 臂拳), traces its origins to religious and military figures of the Song dynasty (960-1279), centuries prior to the Ming (Lu, 2006, pp. 103-105, for example). However, it should be said that having a Song-era foundation is a reoccurring theme in many martial arts legends. For instance, the famed Song general Yue Fei (岳飛, 1103-1142) is commonly attributed Eagle Claw boxing (Yingzhao quan, 鷹爪拳) and Form-Intent boxing (Xingyi quan, 形意拳) (Liang & Yang, 2002, pp. 15-16, for example). But textual evidence for these styles don’t appear until the Ming and Qing, respectively. [4] Most importantly, the oldest source associated with White Ape Connected Arms Boxing, titled the Connected Arms Boxing Manual (Tongbi quan pu, 通臂拳谱), was written during the late Ming and finally published in 1665 during the early Qing (List of surviving Ming period martial arts, 2017). Likewise, concrete references to primate-based boxing do not predate the Ming. This might suggest such styles arose during this time when there was an explosion in the popularity of pugilism. But this tells us nothing about how primate-based boxing may have developed. The history of animal mimicry in Chinese martial arts can be traced to much older concepts based in medicine and religion. This is discussed in section V below.

Japanese and ape sword-fighting combination - small

Fig. 2 – A compilation of images of the sword-fighting apes from the Collection of Military Works (c. 1621) (larger version). By the author. Fig. 3 – A compilation of the original stick figures and Japanese calligraphy from the fourteen volume edition of the New Treatise on Military Efficiency (1584) (larger version). From Qi, 1584/2001, p. 83. Note the similarities in stance and the position of the blades. 

As for the association between primates and armed combat during the Ming, the animals are occasionally referenced in the named fighting techniques of military literature. For example, the tenth volume of Qi Jiguang’s aforementioned manual includes a feinting lance technique titled “White Ape Trailing Sword Stance” (Baiyuan tuo dao shi, 白猿拖刀勢) (Yang & Xie, 1995, p. 336). The 35th volume of the Collection of Military Works (Wubei zhi, 武備志, c. 1621), a Ming treatise on military armaments and fighting techniques compiled by Mao Yuanyi (茅元儀, 1594-1640), includes “White ape exits cave” (Baiyuan chudong shi, 白猿出洞勢), a stance appearing in the sequence for an overhead sword guard. [5] (Incidentally, this is also the name of a fist set practiced in some lineages of Praying Mantis boxing). Additionally, the same volume includes a two-section sword manual, the first section of which portrays fanciful images of apes practicing with the “Sprout saber” (miaodao, 苗刀) (Mao, 1621), a long, two-handed blade similar to the Japanese Katana (fig. 2). These strange images differ from the human-based figures in the rest of the source. It’s important to note that the original sword manual, called Saber Techniques of the Xinyou-era (i.e. 1561) (Xinyou daofa, 辛酉刀法), is taken directly from the fourth volume of the revised fourteen volume edition of Qi’s New Treatise on Military Efficiency (Jixiao Xinshu shisi juan ben, 紀效新書十四卷本, 1584). The first of the aforementioned two sections reproduces a series of sword-wielding stick figures taken from a Shadow School (Kage-ryu, 影流 / 陰流) manual of Japanese sword fighting. The section is prefaced by lively Japanese calligraphy, and the few words recognizable to readers of Chinese include “ape flying” (yuanfei, 猿飛) and “ape returning” (yuanhui, 猿回) (fig. 3), both of which are Kenjutsu techniques still practiced today (video 3). [6] This then might explain why the stick figures were changed to apes when the material was reproduced in the Collection of Military Works decades later. But I would also like to suggest that the change (as well as the allusion to the sword-wielding white ape from the lance technique mentioned earlier) was influenced by a famous first-century Chinese story about a talented swordswoman who has her skills tested by a magic white ape. This is discussed in section IV below.

Video 3 – A modern demonstration of the “ape-flying” technique.

III. Sun Wukong the Monkey King

By far, the most famous weapon-bearing primate of the late Ming-period is Sun Wukong (a.k.a. “Monkey”), the simian protagonist of the highly popular Chinese novel Journey to the West (Xiyouji, 西遊記, 1592). According to the tale, the stone-born monkey rules a mountain utopia before learning magic, martial arts, and the secret of immortality under a Buddho-Daoist sage. He soon thereafter acquires a magic, size-changing iron staff, which he uses to wage war against the celestial realm (fig. 4), proclaiming himself the “Great Sage Equaling Heaven” (Qitian Dasheng, 齊天大聖, hence the name for Kou Si’s Monkey boxing). But his rebellion is eventually quelled by the Buddha, who imprisons the indestructible monkey demon beneath a mountain for his crimes. Five hundred years later, the repentant immortal is called upon to use his great strength, martial arts, and powers of transformation to protect the monk Tripitaka on a journey to procure scriptures from India.

Mr. Li's Criticism - Detail of Monkey fighting Heaven (small)

Fig. 4 – A woodblock print of Sun Wukong fighting the heavenly army with his magic staff (larger version). From Mr. Li Zhouwu’s Literary Criticism of Journey to the West, late 16th-century. 

The narrative portrays Sun as a well-rounded martial artist proficient in both weapons and boxing. For example, during his rebellion with heaven, he trains his monkey children as soldiers, teaching them troop movement and weapons, including swords, spears, axes, and bows and arrows. But he is best known for his skill with the staff (fig. 5). One episode sees Monkey give a display of his martial prowess while he and his master travel through a spooky mountain. His skill is so great that the story likens it to the strategy taught in two of the Seven Military Classics of China: 

“Going through this tall mountain and rugged cliff must have made master [Tripitaka] rather apprehensive, that’s all. Don’t be afraid! Don’t be afraid! Let old Monkey put on a show for you with my rod to calm your fears somewhat.” Dear Pilgrim! Whipping out his rod, he began to go through a sequence of maneuvers with his rod as he walked before the horse: up and down, left and right, the thrusts and parries were made in perfect accord with the Six Secret Teachings and Three Strategies [Liu Tao San Lue, 六韜三略)]. [7] What the elder saw from the horse was a sight incomparable anywhere in the world (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, p. 105).

Sun Wukong In-Flames action figure - small

Fig. 5 – A modern action figure of Sun Wukong with his magic staff (larger version).

Furthermore, Monkey displays a mastery of unarmed fighting (fig. 6) in two episodes. A poem in chapter 51, for example, is important because it describes a battle between Sun and a rhinoceros demon in which they use real boxing techniques, many of which are still known and practiced to this day:

Hitching up his clothes and walking forward, the fiend assumed a boxing posture; his two fists upraised looked truly like two iron sledge hammers. Our Great Sage also loosened his legs at once and moved his body to attack; right before the cave entrance, he began to box with the demon king. This was quite a fight! Aha!

Opening wide the “Four Levels Posture”;
The double-kicking feet fly up.
They pound the ribs and chests;
They stab at galls and hearts.
“The Immortal pointing the Way”;
“Lao Zi Riding the Crane”;
“A Hungry Tiger Pouncing on the Prey” is most hurtful;
“A Dragon Playing with Water” is quite vicious.
The demon king uses a “Serpent Turning Around”;
The Great Sage employs a “Deer Letting Loose its Horns.”
The dragon plunges to Earth with heels upturned;
The wrist twists around to seize Heaven’s bag.
A green lion’s open-mouthed lunge;
A carp’s snapped-back flip.
Sprinkling flowers over the head;
Tying a rope around the waist;
A fan moving with the wind;
The rain driving down the flowers.
The monster-spirit then uses the “Guanyin Palm,”
And pilgrim counters with the “Arhat Feet.”
The “Long-Range Fist,” stretching, is more slack, of course.
How could it compare with the “Close-Range Fist’s” sharp jabs?
The two of them fought for many rounds—
None was the stronger, for they are evenly matched (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, pp. 12-13).

While the techniques are not Monkey boxing, the narrative certainly helped solidify the connection between primates and martial arts during the late Ming when references to the style were recorded.

boxing

Fig. 6 – Sun teaching a young human apprentice martial arts. Drawing by Celsohenrique on deviantart (larger version).

Sun Wukong’s image as a master of armed and unarmed combat led to his veneration among northern Chinese martial artists at the end of the Qing. As noted in this article, fighters of the anti-foreign Boxer Rebellion (1899-1901) were known to channel the spirit of the Monkey King (among other deities) in order to gain his martial prowess. A German catholic missionary active in Shandong in the late-19th and early-20th-century recorded how four boxer youths were chosen as possible vessels, and after a ritual enticed the deity to earth, the “possessed” individual performed a frightening saber dance, indicating the Great Sage had taken control. Additionally, Dudbridge (1970) cites one 17th-century source that describes Sun’s veneration in the southern Chinese province of Fujian for “appear[ing] in the clouds to beat back an attack from Japanese pirates” (p. 158). This refers to the preceding 16th-century when China’s coast was plagued by the aforementioned Wokou pirates. Interestingly, Sun Wukong fighting pirates puts him in the same company as the Shaolin warrior monks, who used their martial arts skills to rout the same bandits during the 1550s (Shahar, 2008, pp. 68-70).

Better Kaiyung Temple Monkey (Zayton-Quanzhou) - small

Fig. 7 – The Monkey Pilgrim stone relief carving, 1237, from the Kaiyuan Temple Western Pagoda, Quanzhou City, Fujian Province, China (larger version).

Monkey is important to this study because he bridges the gap between the lack of pre-Ming references to primate-based boxing and older material associating apes and monkeys with armed combat. Sun first appears as the “Monkey Pilgrim” (Hou xingzhe, 猴行者) in The Story of How Tripitaka of the Great Tang Procures the Scriptures (Da Tang Sanzang qujing shihua, 大唐三藏取經詩話), a seventeen chapter storytelling prompt dated to the late-13th-century. The narrative presents our hero wielding two staves, one a golden-ringed monk’s staff and the other an iron staff, in defense of his Buddhist master. These two staves would later be combined by storytellers to create his signature weapon.

Older still, the Kaiyuan Temple (Kaiyuan si, 開元寺) of Fujian is home to a nearly life-sized carving of the hero (fig. 7), who is presented as a saber-wielding guardian deity. He appears alongside other such wrathful gods, as well as bodhisattvas, arhats, patriarchs, and eminent monks, on a stone pagoda that was erected in the year 1237. So Monkey was associated with various weapons as far back as the 13th-century.

Han-era Stone tomb rubbing showing a white ape - small

Fig. 8 – A Han-era stone tomb rubbing showing a sword-wielding hero striking at a fleeing white ape (center). A woman can be seen held captive in a teardrop-shaped cave (left). The hero is followed by an assistant beating a gong (right) (larger version). From Wu, 1987, p. 88.

Apart from possible Indian influences, Sun Wukong’s origins can be traced to a body of Han (206 BCE-220 CE) and Tang (618-907 CE) dynasty tales in which a magical white ape or gibbon (baiyuan, 白猿) kidnaps human woman and spoils their innocence (fig. 8). For example, the unnamed primate antagonist of “A Supplement to Jiang Zong’s Biography of a White Ape” (Bu Jiang Zong baiyuan zhuang, 補江總白猿傳, c. late 7th-c.) is described as a 1,000-year-old hermit who lives in a mountain utopia, practices Daoist longevity arts, wields the power to fly and change his shape, and has supernatural strength and an iron-hard, nigh-invulnerable body immune to most efforts to harm him. Most importantly, he is depicted as a master of armed combat, one displaying a fondness for sword dancing. His blade is said to “circl[e] his body as fast as lightning and as round as a full moon”. [8] As noted above, this is not the first story involving a magic white ape who is fond of swordplay. 

IV. Magic apes and ancient Chinese heroes

The Chinese classic the Water Margin (Shuihu zhuan, 水滸傳, c. 1400) describes the literary heroes Hou Jian (侯健), Lin Chong (林沖), and Zhang Qing (張清) (fig. 9) each having ape-like arms, denoting their great strength and agility. This same nickname was applied to powerful archers of the past. Ma (2010) writes:

[I]t is said that the Xiongnu warrior Liu Chong ‘had arms like an ape, was skilled at archery (yuanbei shanshe 猿臂善射), and could pull a bow of three hundred jin’ 斤 (Book of Wei《魏書》). Similarly, History of Ming describes General Chang Yuchun 常遇春 as ‘distinguished looking, with peerless courage and strength, had arms like those of an ape and was skilled at archery’; and in the same vein, Tang poet Cui Daorong 崔道融 wrote that ‘the ape-armed general runs as if on wings, sparing no one with his bow from a hundred paces’ (General Li’s Biography [Ti Li jianjun zhuan 題李將軍傳]) (p. 24).

Zhang Qing (Water Margin hero) with Sun Wukong tattoo - small

Fig. 9 – A woodblock print of the hero Zhang Qing by Kuniyoshi produced between 1827 and 1830 (larger version). It is part of the artist’s “One of the 108 Heroes of the Popular Water Margin” series (Tsuzoku Suikoden goketsu hyakuhachinin no hitori, 通俗水滸傳濠傑百八人一個). Original image found here. Look closely and you’ll notice that the tattoo on Zhang’s back portrays Sun Wukong producing magical clones of himself from his mouth.

Oddly enough, the earliest tales mentioning archers and magic white apes do not liken one to the other. In fact, they are diametrically opposed. For example, a third-century BCE tale about the famed archer Yang Youji (養由基, 7th-c. BCE) portrays the creature as an elusive target for his arrow:

Once in the palace of Jing 荊 there was a supernatural white ape. Even the skillful archers of Jing could not hit it. Then the king of Jing asked … Yang Youji to shoot it. Yang straightened his bow and went to the palace with arrows in his hands. Before shooting he aimed at a place where the [moving] ape had not yet arrived. When he let the arrow fly, the ape fell immediately. Thus Yang Youji could be called the archer who could hit a target before it was there (Wu, 1987, p. 103; see also Gulik, 1967, p. 41).

A similar version of the tale states the ape recognizes Yang’s supernatural skill, anticipating the arrow and crying out in pain moments before actually being struck (Wu, 1987, p. 103; Gulik, 1967, p. 41).

Perhaps the most famous story associating the magic white ape with martial arts is the “Maiden of Yue” (Yuenu, 越女, 1st-c. BCE), named after its protagonist, a peerless swordswoman of the 5th-century BCE. The story describes how she participates in a sparring match with the shape-changing ape:

The Young Woman of Yue travelled north for her audience with the king [Goujian of Yue]. On the way, she met an old fellow who said his name was “Old Mr. Yuan” [Yuan Gong, 袁公].

He said to the young woman, “I hear you fight well with a [sword]. I’d like to see a demonstration.”

She replied, “I wouldn’t presume to keep anything from you: you are welcome to test my skill, Sir.”

So Old Man Yuan drew out a length of Linyu bamboo. But the bamboo was rotten at one end. The end fell to the ground and the young woman immediately snatched it up. The old man wielded the top end of the staff and thrust towards the young woman, but [she] parried straight back, thrust three times, and finally raised her end of bamboo and drove home her attack against Old Man Yuan [fig. 10]. Old Man Yuan hopped off up a tree, turning into a white ape [baiyuan, 白猿, hence the surname]. Then each went their own way, and she went on to meet with the king. [9]

Upon meeting the king, the Maiden reveals the secret to her fighting ability is the application of yin and yang energy, which are metaphorically described as the opening and closing of large and small swinging doors. This is “[t]he earliest extant published exposition of [the] theory applied directly to the martial arts” (Henning, 2001, p. 746), predating the artificial categorization of Chinese boxing into “internal” (neijia, 内家) and “external” (waijia, 外家) styles during the 17th-century (Henning, 2007, p. 26). Therefore, the importance of the story in the annals of Chinese martial arts history can’t be overstated. Nor can the inclusion of the white ape. His supernatural challenge and subsequent defeat respectively tests and confirms the effectiveness of the theory.

This tale likely influenced the association between white apes and swordplay in later sources, such as the sword-dancing antagonist of the Tang-era “Supplement to Jiang Zong’s Biography of a White Ape” (section III) and the sword-wielding primates of military literature (section II). For example, “White Ape Trailing Sword Stance”, the aforementioned feinting lance technique from New Treatise on Military Efficiency (c. 1561/1562), may refer to Old Mr. Yuan’s defeat.

Maiden of Yue vs Old Man Yuan (the white ape) - small

Fig. 10 – A modern drawing of the Maiden of Yue fighting Old Mr. Yuan by martial historian Stan Henning (larger version). From Henning, 2007, p. 24.

Our heroes’ respective stories make no reference to animal mimicry, the cornerstone of primate-based boxing. In fact, it’s the reverse in the second narrative: an ape mimics man. [10] The tales instead promote the idea of trained human skill conquering the raw, often magical, power of nature. In the case of the Maiden of Yue, her mastery of yin and yang energy enabled her to best the magic white ape. Yang Youji is more of a mythic figure capable of miraculous feats, such as sinking an arrow into a boulder simply because he mistook it for a rhino (i.e. mind over matter) (Selby, 2000, p. 131). But he succeeded in falling a white ape when many archers failed. These tales are therefore the antithesis of primate-based boxing, representing what might have been considered more “civilized” or “noble” forms of martial arts, namely the armed disciplines of archery and swordplay.

V. Animal mimicry in Chinese medicine and religion

I suggested above that primate-based styles may have arisen during the Ming. But how the styles developed is likely tied to the long history of animal mimicry in China. For example, around the year 60 BCE (during the Han), the courtier Tan Changqing (檀長卿) is said to have been reprimanded for violating ritual norms by performing the dance of the “dog and macaque combat” (wu wei mu hou yu gou dou, 舞為沐猴與狗鬭) while at a drunken party (Harper, 2001, p. 18). This dance may have some connection to a funerary motif appearing in Han-era stone tombs in which dogs are shown intimidating apes, the motif representing the conquering of evil influences. [11] Tan’s display can’t be assigned a martial role, however, because it was likely a comical pantomime. [12] But this shows mimicking primates served a variety of purposes in Chinese culture.

Primate-based movements figure in a number of ancient therapeutic exercises. For instance, the monkey appears in the Five Animals’ Frolic (Wuqin xi, 五禽戲), a 3rd-century system of daoyin calisthenics, which mimics the movements or behaviors of the tiger, deer, bear, monkey, and bird (in that order), each animal set strengthening a particular area of the body (Kohn, 2008, pp. 163-169). Movements mimicking the bear, monkey, and bird actually predate this system, appearing among forty-four exercises listed in the Illustrations of Guiding and Pulling (Daoyin tu, 導引圖, 168 BCE), the oldest known diagram of daoyin exercises, discovered in Mawangdui (馬王堆) (fig. 11 and 12). Primate-based exercises include the “Monkey Bawling to Pull Internal Hotness” (muhou guan yinling zhong, 沐猴灌引靈中) (#35) and “Gibbon Shouting” (yuanhu, 猿謼) (#40) (fig. 13 and 14) (Harper, 1998, pp. 315 and 316). [13]

The Masters of Huainan (Huananzi, 淮南子, 139 BCE), a compendium of Daoist, Confucian, and Legalist thought, references another primate-based daoyin set in a section criticizing such exercises as inferior to spiritual cultivation:

If you huff and puff,
exhale and inhale,
blow out the old and pull in the new,
practice the Bear Hang [xiongjing, 熊經], the Bird Stretch [niaoshen, 鳥伸],
the Duck Splash [fuyu, 鳧浴], the Ape leap [yuanjue, 蝯躩],
the Owl Gaze [chishi, 鴟視], and the Tiger Stare [hugu, 虎顧]:

This is what is practiced by those who nurture the body. They are not the practices of those who polish the mind (Liu & Major, 2010, p. 236).

Daoyin tu - Original, reconstruction, monkey and gibbon - 35 and 40

Fig 11 – (Top left) The Illustrations of Guiding and Pulling, 2nd-c. BCE, paint on silk, 142 x 70 cm (55.9 x 27.5 in) (larger version). Image originally found here. Fig. 12 – (Top right) A modern reconstruction (larger version). Image originally found on Wikipedia. Harper (1998) warns such reconstructions “should be regarded as conjectural in many details” since the original is in such poor condition (p. 191). Fig. 13 – (Bottom left) The reconstruction of “Monkey Bawling to Pull Internal Hotness” (larger version). Fig. 14 – (Bottom right) The reconstruction of “Gibbon Shouting” (larger version).

These therapeutic exercises likely find their origin in ancient Shamanic animal dances designed to drive away demonic illness and influences (Harper, 1985, pp. 487-488). One such dance was the seasonal Da Nuo (大儺 / 難; Jp: Tsuina, 追儺) ritual in which a bearskin-clad exorcist (Ch: fangxiangshi; Jp: hōsōshi, 方相氏) and his army of fur, feather, and horn-clad youths, representing twelve animal deities, expelled evil spirits from human dwellings. Evidence suggests it may have been performed as early as the Shang (17th to 11th-c. BCE), but the earliest concrete references come from the Eastern Zhou (8th to 3rd-c. BCE) (Poo, 2009, p. 286). What’s interesting for our purposes is that the exorcism has a martial aspect; not only does the exorcist bear a lance and shield for ritual combat (fig. 15), but also the group travels throughout the given location dancing and shouting, with the youths beating drums and commanding twelve spirits by name to devour or eviscerate anthropomorphic representations of malevolent influences (Poo, 2009, pp. 287-288). So by wearing animal products, the exorcist and his ritual army gained the strength of animal deities to combat dark forces.

Nuo exorcist expelling demon (Hayaike Yu Okami and Oni Yarai) - small

Fig. 15 – A Japanese woodblock print portraying the Da Nuo exorcist expelling a “pestilence” spirit with his lance and shield (larger version). Originally found here. Note the four-eyed mask. This is based on the four golden-eyed bear skin worn by the exorcist in ancient Chinese records (Poo, 2009, p. 287).

It’s possible that the “twelve animals” of the Da Nuo exorcism refer to some precursor of the Chinese zodiacal animals (rat, ox, tiger, rabbit, dragon, snake, horse, goat, monkey, rooster, dog, and pig). If true, monkey fur could have been among the animal products worn by the ritual army. After all, monkeys have long been associated with curing illness and expelling evil in East Asia. [14] A modern example of exorcists who don monkey fur are the shamans of the Qiang ethnic group of Sichuan. The Qiang worship monkeys as the source and savior of their sacred knowledge, as well as the progenitor of their people, the latter being a myth cycle common among ethnic groups of Tibet and southwestern China.

Henning (2001) highlights the connection between animal totemism and animal boxing:

Another view is that at least some animal forms may hark back to a distant totemic past that still occupies a place in the Chinese psyche. This totemic influence is difficult if not impossible to trace in majority Han Chinese boxing styles; however, it can be seen in the combination of martial arts and dance practiced by some of China’s many national minorities. Cheng Dali, in his Chinese Martial Arts: History and Culture, points to Frog Boxing, practiced by the Zhuang Nationality of the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, as an example, the frog being considered their protector against both natural and man-made disasters (p. 16).

Therefore, the primate-based martial arts of the Ming could descend from totemic mimicry of apes and monkeys in Chinese spiritual practices. The development could have gone something like this:

  1. Early shamanic dances drawing on the totemic power of primate deities (via their fur) to exorcise evil influences through ritual combat, including the bearing of weapons, drumming, dancing, and the shouting of spells.
  2. The animal fur and martial dancing give way to calisthenics drawing on primate mimicry to expel sickness and strengthen the body.
  3. These calisthenic movements are adapted for fighting.

It’s even possible that the war-like shamanic dancing gave way directly to boxing. Martiality (wu, 武) and dance (wu, 舞) have long been associated in Chinese history, for drums and gongs were used to direct the movements of both troops and dancers (Lorge, 2012, p. 26-27). Musical accompaniment remains a staple of folk martial arts performances. A modern example of totemic mimicry, dancing, and martial arts is the Lion Dance (wushi, 舞獅) popular in Asian communities throughout the world (video 4).

Video 4 – Five lion dancing teams performing before a crowd. 

VI. Conclusion

Apes and monkeys have been associated with armed and unarmed martial arts in Chinese culture for over two thousand years. Tai Shing Pek Kwar, a popular modern combat style of Monkey boxing created in the early 20th-century, is predated by even older instances of Monkey boxing alluded to in military and travel writings of the 16th-century, suggesting it was a common form of pugilism. Additionally, military literature of the 16th and 17th-century associates white apes with swordplay. The lack of historical references to primate-based boxing prior to the Ming (1368-1644) suggests such styles developed during the explosion in popularity of pugilism at this time. The image of the highly popular late Ming literary monkey hero Sun Wukong as a master of armed and unarmed martial arts, as well as his association with staff and sword fighting in 13th-century oral literature and Buddhist art, respectively, helps bridge this gap between the lack of historical boxing references and older material associating primates with armed combat. He can be traced to a body of Han (206 BCE-220 CE) and Tang (618-907 CE) dynasty stories about magic white apes who, due to their supernatural abilities, were portrayed as the ultimate test of a warrior’s martial skills. The most famous of these tells how the Maiden of Yue, a talented swordswoman of the 5th-century BCE, vets her yin-yang theory-based sword style by defeating a white ape-turned-old man in a sparring match. This story is important because it’s the first recorded association of yin-yang theory and martial arts in Chinese history. This tale and another involving the mythic archer Yang Youji are the antitheses of primate-based boxing because each touts the superiority of trained human skill over the raw, magical power of nature. Despite this, animal mimicry played a large role in early therapeutic yoga-like Daoyin calisthenics, such as the Five Animals Frolic (3rd-c. CE) and those appearing in the Illustrations of Guiding and Pulling (168 BCE), which copied the movements of monkeys and apes (among other animals) to strengthen given areas of the body. These exercises likely find their origin in ancient war-like Shamanic animal dances designed to drive away demonic illness and influences, one example being the seasonal Da Nuo exorcism of the Eastern Zhou (8th to 3rd-c. BCE). The Da Nuo exorcist and his ritual army wore animal products (fur, horns, feathers, etc.) to invoke the power of animal deities capable of driving away malevolent forces. Monkey fur may have been worn by members of the ritual army because the animal and its products have long been associated with curing illness and expelling evil in East Asia. Shamans among the modern Qiang ethnic group of Sichuan worship monkeys and draw on the power of their fur to perform exorcisms. Animal totemism plays a part in some animal-based martial arts, such as the Frog boxing of the Zhuang ethnic group. Therefore, the primate-based martial arts of the Ming may have been influenced by the ancient totemic mimicry of apes and monkeys in Chinese spiritual practices, those that formed the basis of later animal-based therapeutic exercises. This is where the historical study would benefit from modern ethnographic field research. A follow-up study might bridge the gap between the historical data and modern practice.

Update: 12-11-2021

I’ve written an article about a white ape immortal associated with revealing heavenly knowledge. One source claims the primate transcendent taught boxing to a modern Chinese monk.

The White Ape Perfected Man: Sun Wukong’s Divine Double

Notes:

1) A shorter paper with a similar focus is Ma (2010). The editor of the Journal of Chinese Martial Studies was gracious enough to provide me with a PDF copy of the article when I was nearing completion of this paper.

2) Regarding the name of the creator of Monkey boxing, Kou Si (寇四), kou (寇) means “bandit, foe, or enemy”. I find this especially interesting given he was imprisoned for murder, the reasons for which range from accidentally killing a villager in a fight to purposely killing a military official to avoid service (Matsuda, 2013, pp. 86-87). It’s possibly this name is simply a folk title given to an unknown creator, or one known to have been active in crime.

3) See chapters three and four.

4) The earliest mention of Eagle Claw appears in Qi Jiguang’s training manual. It refers to “Eagle Claw Wang’s grappling methods” (Yingzhao Wang zhi na, 鷹爪王之拿) (Gyves, 1993, p. 35). Qing-era manuals and family histories suggest Xingyi was created by a certain Ji Jike (姬際可, fl. 1650) (Shahar, 2008, pp. 134-135).

5) For an English translation of the sword technique mentioning the stance, see Chen, 2018, pp. 73-75.

6) Qi, 1584/2001, p. 83. I’m indebted to the operator of the Great Ming Military blog for explaining the connection between the ape images and the visible characters from the Japanese calligraphy, as well as providing me with a digital copy of the fourteen volume edition of Qi’s training manual.

7) The original English translation omits the two named books from the Chinese version. It reads, “…the thrusts and parries were made in perfect accord with the manuals of martial arts” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, p. 105).

8) Chen, 1998, p. 84. Some readers may have noticed the sword is a reoccurring theme in Sun Wukong’s history: 1) The Qing-era boxers are said to have performed a saber dance under his possession; 2) he is depicted with a saber on the Kaiyuan temple pagoda in Fujian; and 3) the magic white ape on whom he is likely based loves performing sword dances. In addition, two other sources mention Monkey’s association with the sword. First, a 15th-century Zaju play describes Guanyin giving Sun Wukong a Buddhist saber (jiedao, 戒刀) (apart from other magic items) to protect his master on the eve of their journey. Second, a 17th-century tale set in Fujian describes the Great Sage magically afflicting a merchant with painful leg sores using a “Bodhisattva Saber” (Pusa dao, 菩薩刀).

I don’t think these have any unifying significance, however. For example, the saber requires less training and is cheaper than other implements of war. So it was often the go to weapon for soldiers and bodyguards. Monkey’s association with the saber on the pagoda is likely tied to this same concept. As a guardian deity, he is portrayed with the same weapon used by mortals to protect others in times of need. The magic white ape is portrayed as a Daoist gentleman, one in possession of a pair of treasure swords (baojian, 寶劍), the kind used in Daoist ritual. His fancy for the sword may be based on Old Mr. Yuan from the Maiden of Yue (see section IV). Another literary character with Buddhist sabers is Wu Song from the Water Margin (Shuihu zhuan, 水滸傳, c. 1400). I explain in this article (footnote #2) that his sabers are based on real world Buddhist knives issued to monks. The same concept is no doubt tied to Monkey’s weapon from the play. Having said that, I will admit, though, that the saber from the pagoda may have had some influence on that mentioned in the 17th-century story. After all, the pagoda example is portrayed with a lick of heavenly flame, just like one would expect from a celestial sword. Also, both the story and the pagoda take place/are located in Fujian, home to the Great Sage’s cult.

9) Selby, 2000, pp. 155-156. The famous Tang poet Li Bai (李白) referenced Mr. Yuan’s defeat in one of his poems. A line reads “The White Ape was ashamed of his fencing” (Ma, 2010, p. 24). This is fascinating as Li Bai was also known to have been a proficient swordsmen in his youth (Liu, 1967, pp. 46-47).

10) This is based on an old concept in which primates were thought to progress through a type of magical evolution, similar to modern day Pokémon. The Baopuzi (抱朴子, 2nd-c. CE) states a monkey will transform into a gibbon after 800 years of life. It will then change into several legendary apes over some 3,500 years, before evolving into an old man (Ball, 1927, p. 117). Gulik (1967) cites a tale in which the soothsayer Zhou Qun (周羣 / 周群) learns the secrets of divination from a gibbon-turned-old man (p. 50).

11) As noted in this article, Sun Wukong’s capture at the mouth of Lord Erlang’s hound is tied to the Han-era tomb motif of dogs intimidating apes.

12) Ma (2010) translates the historical passage, noting those at the party were “drinking wine and making merry, then Tan Changqing, the high official of Changxin Palace, starts to dance, to imitate a monkey fighting with a dog, bringing laughter to all present” (p. 25).

13) Harper (1998) suggests an alternate reading for “Gibbon shout” (yuanhu, 猿謼) is “Gibbon Jump” (yuanjue, 蝯躩) based on graphical similarities to an exercise from the Huainanzi. (淮南子, 139 BCE) (p. 316, n. 1).

14) This is tied to a Song-era (and likely older) superstition from Sichuan where people would place monkeys in stables to ward off equine sickness (Eberhard, 1969, p. 52). This is why heaven appoints Sun Wukong the Bimawen (弼馬溫, “Keeper of the (Heavenly) Horses”), which is a pun on Bimawen (避馬瘟, “Avoid the horse plague”). Due to his former exalted position, earthly horses are shown to fear the Monkey King throughout the narrative (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 309, for example).

In Japan, monkeys were also associated with horses and healing via the warding of evil. Apart from monkeys being kept in stables like their Chinese counterparts, their fur was applied to the harnesses and quivers of Samurai because the warriors believed it gave them more control over their mounts. Furthermore, monkey body parts have been consumed for centuries as curative medicines, and their hides have even been stuffed to make protective amulets (kukurizaru) to ward off illness. Likewise, a genre of painting depicts divine monkeys (saru gami), messengers of the mountain deity, performing Da Nuo-like dances to ensure a good rice harvest (Ohnuki-Tierney, 1987, pp. 43-50)

Sources:

Ball, K. M. (1927). Decorative motives of oriental art. London, John Lane; New York, Dodd, Mead and Co.

Chen, J. (1998). A supplement to Jiang Zong’s biography of a white ape. Renditions 49, pp. 76-85.

Chen, J. (2018). Ancient art of Chinese long straight sword. (n.p.): Chen Jiayi.

Dudbridge, G. (1970). The Hsi-yu chi: A study of antecedents to the sixteenth-century Chinese novel. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press.

Eberhard, W. (1969). The local cultures of south and east China. Leiden: E.J. Brill.

Gulik, R. H. (1967). The gibbon in China: An essay in Chinese animal lore. Leiden: E.J. Brill.

Gyves, C. M. (1993). An English Translation of General Qi Jiguang’s “Quanjing Jieyao Pian” (Master’s thesis). The University of Arizona, Arizona, USA.

Harper, D. (1985). A Chinese demonography of the Third Century B.C. Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, 45 (2), pp. 459-498.

Harper, D. (1998). Early Chinese medical literature: The Mawangdui medical manuscripts. London: Wellcome Asian Medical Monographs.

Harper, D. (2001). Poets and Primates: Wang Yanshou’s Poem on the Macaque, Asia Major 14(2), pp. 1-25.

Henning, S. (2001). Written Texts: China In T. A. Green (Ed.), Martial arts of the world: An encyclopedia, volume two: r–z (pp. 745-748). Santa Barbara, Calif: ABC-CLIO.

Henning, S. (2007). The maiden of Yue: Fount of Chinese martial arts theory. Journal of Asian Martial Arts, 16(3), pp. 24-27.

Kohn, L. (2008). Chinese healing exercises: The tradition of Daoyin. Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi Press.

Liang, S. Y., and Yang, J. M. (2002). Xingyiquan: Theory, applications, fighting tactics and spirit. Boston: YMAA Publication Center.

List of surviving Ming period martial arts. (2017, December 3). Retrieved from http://greatmingmilitary.blogspot.com/p/list-of-surviving-ming-period-martial.html

Liu, J. Y. (1967). The Chinese knight-errant. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Liu, A., and Major, J. S. (2010). The Huainanzi: A guide to the theory and practice of government in early Han China. New York: Columbia University Press.

Lorge, P. A. (2012). Chinese martial arts: From antiquity to the twenty-first century. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Lu, S. (2006). Combat techniques of Taiji, Xingyi, and Bagua: Principles and practices of internal martial arts. Berkeley, Calif: Blue Snake Books.

Ma, L. (2010). From ape worship in ancient China to monkey imitation in modern competition wu shu. Journal of Chinese Martial Studies 2, pp. 20-28.

Mao, Y. (1621). Wubei zhi: juan sanshiwu  [Collection of Military Works: Volume 35]. Retrieved from https://ctext.org/wiki.pl?if=gb&chapter=263135

Matsuda, M. (2013). Monkey kung fu: History & tradition. (n.p.): Michael Matsuda.

Ohnuki-Tierney, E. (1987). The monkey as mirror: Symbolic transformations in Japanese history and ritual. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Poo, M. (2009). Ritual and ritual texts in early China In J. Lagerwey and M. Kalinowski (Ed.). Early Chinese religion, part one: Shang through Han (1250 BC-220 AD) (pp. 281-313). Leiden: Brill.

Qi, J. (2001). Jixiao xinshu shisi juan ben [New Treatise on Military Efficiency: Fourteen volume edition]. Beijing: Zhonghua shuju. (Original work published 1584)

Selby, S. (2000). Chinese archery. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.

Shahar, M. (2008). The Shaolin monastery: History, religion, and the Chinese martial arts. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press.

Wu, C., and Yu, A. C. (2012). The journey to the west: Vol. 1-4. Chicago, Ill: University of Chicago Press.

Wu, H. (1987). The earliest pictorial representations of ape tales: An interdisciplinary study of early Chinese narrative art and literature. T’oung Pao LXXIII, pp. 86-112.

Yang, J., and Xie, G. (Ed.) (1995). Zhongguo bingshu jicheng [Collection of Chinese Military Literature]. Beijing: Liaoshen shushe.

Zheng, R. Z. (1564). Jiangnan jinglue: juan ba shang [Strategic Situation in Jiangnan: vol. 8]. Retrieved from https://zh.wikisource.org/zh-hant/江南經畧_(四庫全書本)/卷8上

Sun Wukong and Martial Arts

Jim R. McClanahan Leave a comment

Last updated: 08-07-2018

The Monkey King is well known for his prowess with the staff. However, the first two chapters detailing his tutelage under the Buddho-Daoist sage, Patriarch Subodhi, surprisingly do not mention him training in combat skills, what Journey to the West (Xiyouji, 西遊記, 1592) calls wuyi (武藝; lit: “martial arts”). [1] In fact, the novel only briefly alludes to it later in a poem from chapter 67, part of which reads: “I bowed to the Patriarch of the Heart and Mind Spirit Platform and perfected with him the martial arts” (身拜靈臺方寸祖，學成武藝甚全周) (based on Wu & Yu, 2012, vol 3, p. 243). [2] But beyond the staff, Sun Wukong comes to master boxing, a skill he displays only a few times in the novel.

For example, a poem in chapter 51 describes his unarmed battle with a rhinoceros demon:

Hitching up his clothes and walking forward, the fiend assumed a boxing posture; his two fists upraised looked truly like two iron sledge hammers. Our Great Sage also loosened his legs at once and moved his body to attack; right before the cave entrance, he began to box with the demon king. This was quite a fight! Aha!

Opening wide the “Four Levels Posture”;
The double-kicking feet fly up.
They pound the ribs and chests;
They stab at galls and hearts.
“The Immortal pointing the Way”;
“Lao Zi Riding the Crane”;
“A Hungry Tiger Pouncing on the Prey” is most hurtful;
“A Dragon Playing with Water” is quite vicious.
The demon king uses a “Serpent Turning Around”;
The Great Sage employs a “Deer Letting Loose its Horns.”
The dragon plunges to Earth with heels upturned;
The wrist twists around to seize Heaven’s bag.
A green lion’s open-mouthed lunge;
A carp’s snapped-back flip.
Sprinkling flowers over the head;
Tying a rope around the waist;
A fan moving with the wind;
The rain driving down the flowers.
The monster-spirit then uses the “Guanyin Palm,”
And pilgrim counters with the “Arhat Feet.”
The “Long-Range Fist,” stretching, is more slack, of course.
How could it compare with the “Close-Range Fist’s” sharp jabs?
The two of them fought for many rounds—
None was the stronger, for they are evenly matched (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, pp. 12-13)

那妖撩衣進步，丟了個架子，舉起兩個拳來，真似打油的鐵鎚模樣。這大聖展足挪身，擺開解數，在那洞門前，與那魔王遞走拳勢。這一場好打。咦！
拽開大四平，踢起雙飛腳。韜脅劈胸墩，剜心摘膽著。仙人指路，老子騎鶴。餓虎撲食最傷人，蛟龍戲水能兇惡。魔王使個蟒翻身，大聖卻施鹿解角。翹跟淬地龍，扭腕拿天橐。青獅張口來，鯉魚跌脊躍。蓋頂撒花，遶腰貫索。迎風貼扇兒，急雨催花落。妖精便使觀音掌，行者就對羅漢腳。長掌開闊自然鬆，怎比短拳多緊削。兩個相持數十回，一般本事無強弱。

Shahar (2008) notes that this fight “[gave] the author an opportunity to display his familiarity with the contemporary jargon of ‘postures’ (shi and jiazi), ‘Long-Range Fist’ (changquan), and ‘Close-Range Fist’ (duanquan)” (pp. 131-132).

Interestingly, many of these techniques are still known to this day, some better known by slightly different names.

I consulted with martial artist Joshua Viney to learn what each technique involves. Joshua has lived and studied folk martial arts from village masters around the noted Shaolin Monastery (Shaolin si, 少林寺) for ten years. He currently maintains the Shaolin Yuzhai Youtube channel where he posts instructional videos. Please check it out.

I. The techniques

1) Opening wide the “Four Levels Posture” (Zhuai kaida siping, 拽開大四平) – An open fighting posture where the boxer stands in the horse stance (Mabu, 馬步) with arms outstretched to his sides. Also known as “Single Whip Horse Stance” (Mabu danbian kai siping, 馬步單鞭開四平) (fig. 1), which is often associated with Taiji boxing (太極拳).

Wide open stance
2) The double-kicking feet fly up (Ti qi shuangfei jiao, 踢起雙飛腳) – Also known as “Double kicking feet” (Er qi jiao, 二起腳), this technique involves lifting up one knee to build upward momentum and then kicking high with the other (fig. 2). It is reminiscent of the “crane kick” from the Karate Kid (1984).

double jump kick

3) They pound the ribs and chests (Tao xie pi xiong dun, 韜脅劈胸墩) – Possibly referring to the “Pushing palm” (Tui zhang, 推掌) or “Splitting palm” (Pi zhang, 劈掌), which is delivered into the solar plexus and up into the rib cage (fig. 3).

Pushing - splitting palm

From Joshua’s APPLICATION of Xiao Hong Quan video.

4) “The Immortal pointing the Way” (Xianren zhilu, 仙人指路) – A double finger attack aimed at the eyes (fig. 4). The stance is often seen used in tandem with a sword.

Immortal points the way

5) “Lao Zi Riding the Crane” (Laozi qihe, 老子騎鶴) – Most likely another name for the Crane stance (fig. 5).

crane stance

6) “A Hungry Tiger Pouncing on the Prey” (E hu pu shi, 餓虎撲食) – This name has been applied to many techniques. One variation known as “Fetching the moon from the seabed” (Haidi lao yue, 海底撈月) involves a powerful hip and/or palm strike to the groin/lower midline of the body (fig. 6). The force of the hip strike is powerful enough to send someone flying backwards.

Hip bump 1

Left: Setting up the attack. Right: The hit (from Joshua’s 13 Hammers of Shaolin video).

7) A Dragon Playing with Water (Jiaolong xi shui, 蛟龍戲水) – Also known as “Dragon puking water” (Jiaolong xi shuineng xiong’e, 蛟龍戲水能兇惡), this technique involves fluid, sweeping arm movements (most likely blocks or fake strikes) followed by simultaneous double fist blows (fig. 7). The technique is associated with Shaolin and Chang Family Fist (Changjia quan, 萇家拳), a martial art that influenced the development of Taiji boxing.[3]

Dragon puking water

8) “Serpent Turning Around” (Mang fanshen, 蟒翻身) – Also known as “Python turns over” (Guai mang fanshen, 怪蟒翻身), this technique involves a simultaneous chop to the throat and a pulling leg sweep, effectively knocking the opponent backwards (fig. 8).

Pythong turns

9) “Deer Letting Loose its Horns” (Lu jie jiao, 鹿解角) – A series of elbow strikes to the torso (fig. 9). One variant called “Plum blossom deer lies on a pillow” (Meihua lu wo zhen, 梅花鹿臥枕) places the fist of the attacking arm against the temple, looking as if the practitioner is propping his head up in a resting posture.

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10) The dragon plunges to Earth with heels upturned (Qiao gen cui dilong, 翹跟淬地龍) – A shooting maneuver using the Falling stance (Pubu, 仆步) to dip below the opponent’s defenses and attack the lower extremities (fig. 10). Also known as Qiao dilong zou xiapan zhao (雀地龍走下盤找).

dragon drops

11) The wrist twists around to seize Heaven’s bag (Niu wan na tiantuo, 扭腕拿天橐) – UNKNOWN. Mostly likely a headlock.

12) A green lion’s open-mouthed lunge (Qingshi zhangkou lai, 青獅張口來) – More commonly known as “Lion opens mouth” (Shizi dazhang zui, 獅子大張嘴), this technique has two variations. The large frame version involves shooting in low, pulling up the opponent’s knee with one hand, while simultaneously pushing on their head with the other hand, knocking them over (fig. 11). This can be used for throwing an opponent as well. The small frame version involves cupping the hands to intercept strikes.

lion opens mouth

From APPLICATION of Xiao Hong Quan

13) A carp’s snapped-back flip (Liyu die ji yue, 鯉魚跌脊躍) – This can refer to both throwing an opponent and a move commonly referred to as a “kip-up.” The latter involves the practitioner flipping up from a supine position to a standing fighting stance (fig. 12).

14) Sprinkling flowers over the head (Gai ding sa hua, 蓋頂撒花) – Also known as “Double cloud over peak” (Shuang yun ding, 雙雲頂), this technique involves flourishing the hands above the head as a means of blocking, twisting an opponent’s arm, or disengaging from combat (fig. 13).

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15) Tying a rope around the waist (Rao yao guan suo, 遶腰貫索) – UNKNOWN. Possibly a circling step similar to one later used in Bagua Palm Boxing (Bagua zhang, 八卦掌) (fig. 14).

16) A fan moving with the wind (Yingfeng tie shan er, 迎風貼扇兒) – Crossed hands shooting out to intercept an opponent’s punch (fig. 15).

fan against the wind

17) The rain driving down the flowers (Ji yu cui hua luo, 急雨催花落) – Most likely a rapid succession of punches.

18) “Guanyin Palm” (Guanyin zhang, 觀音掌) – A style of palm strikes. It is listed as number 70 of the “72 Training Methods of Shaolin” (Shaolin qishi’er yi lian fa, 少林七十二藝練法) (Jin & Timofeevich, 2004, p. 229).

19) “Arhat Feet” (Luohan jiao, 羅漢腳) – A style of kicking.

20) Long-Range Fist (Chang quan, 長拳) – A family of Northern style martial arts known for their long-range punches and kicks and acrobatic movements.

21) Close-Range Fist (Duan quan, 短拳) – A family of Northern style martial arts known for their compact, short-range, yet quick attacks.

II. Battle reconstruction

What follows is Joshua’s reconstruction of the fight. He makes an interesting observation that the fight may in fact be a theatrical stage combat version of known techniques.

I think what we are seeing here is a Chinese Opera-like performance of a fight that the author saw and perhaps asked about the names or recognised. I expect it would be very contrived. After this we are not told explicitly who does what and it may not be a one for one exchange. Nevertheless looking at the wording we can make a guess.
 
It begins with a large fighting stance, probably the ‘single whip’ posture of holding the arms straight to the sides. Then both performers do a jumping kick towards each other to enter striking range. Given it uses the phrase 劈胸 ‘pi xiong’ (split chest) I expect they begin by using the chest splitting palm at one another and so cross hands in the center of the arena [fig. 16].
cross hands
 
Once they have crossed hands I think the demon grasps Monkey’s hand and attacks with the fingers of the other hand at his eyes, doing the ‘immortal points the way’ technique. Monkey defends against this by shielding his face with his forearms, then spreading his hands and kicking at the monster’s stomach. This pushes the monster away and Monkey is left with one knee suspended and arms spread to the sides in the ‘Lao Tzu rides a crane’ posture.
 
The Demon takes advantage of this unstable posture by rushing at him with the ‘hungry tiger pounces on prey’ technique, striking Monkey with his hips and grasping hold of him. Monkey uses the ‘dragon puking water’ technique, which erupts from below the demons arms and casts them aside, then rushes forwards again to attack with both hands. The Demon defends this by sticking close to the monkey and uses the ‘python turning its body’ technique to trip him up. But Monkey is strong and keeps his footing, counter attacking with a headbutt and multiple elbow strikes which form the ‘Deer-Horn’ technique. 
 
The Demon jumps away but Monkey pursues with the ‘ground dragon’ technique and attacks the demons groin, causing him to buckle over, whereby Monkey grasps his head with the ‘twisting heavens sack’ technique. The Demon defends by using the ‘Lion opens mouth lunge’ to stop Monkey and throw him down. The monkey recovers by flipping his body in the ‘carp jump’ technique. Then he withdraws from the center by a few steps ‘covering his head with the flowers’ overhead technique. The Demon similarly disengages from the center and puts up a guard, prowling slowly around Monkey with the ‘turning waist’ technique.
 
I think the rest is describing more how they are evenly matched and face each other down rather than any other moves. ‘Iron fan stands against the wind’ is a common technique, a guard, and ‘rain falling on flowers’ is perhaps an eye strike but could also mean the intensity of the fight is like an urgent rain of punches. ‘Guanyin palm’ and ‘Luohans feet’ are both style names. Long fist vs short fist, how can they overcome one another? 10 rounds without a victor.

He goes onto describe the physical and psychological aspects of Long-range and Close-range fist:

Long fist and Short fist are the classic methods of Shaolin shenfa [身法, “Body postures”]. In order to strike the opponent one needs momentum, both physical AND psychological. Momentum is achieved by moving the dantian [4] as the centre of mass. In Short fist the dantian is rotated to add to power. In Long fist the whole dantian is thrown in the direction of the strike instead of rotated–much more powerful but also more wild and uncontrollable. In Shaolin philosophy, mind and matter are not severed, so physical momentum and psychological momentum are intertwined; when one has physical forward momentum, one simultaneously feels more confident.

III. Similarities with other literary combat

A poem similar to that from JTTW appears in the 120 chapter version of the Water Margin (Shuihu zhuan, 水滸傳, c. 1594) by Yu Xiangdou (余象斗, c. 1560–c. 1640). The poem describes unarmed combat between a young man and woman.

Opening wide the “Four Levels Posture”;
The double-kicking feet fly up.
“The Immortal pointing the Way”;
“Lao Zi Riding the Crane”;
“Phoenix Elbow” to the heart;
“The Guard Head Cannon Stance” strikes the temples;
The dragon plunges to Earth with heels upturned;
The wrist twists around to seize Heaven’s bag;
This girl, sprinkling flowers over the head;
This boy, tying a rope around the waist;
Two fans moving with the wind;
The rain driving down the flowers.

拽開大四平，踢起雙飛腳。仙人指路，老子騎鶴。拗鸞肘出近前心，當頭炮勢侵額角。翹跟淬地龍，扭腕擎天橐。這邊女子，使個蓋頂撒花；這裡男兒，耍個腰貫索。兩個似迎風貼扇兒，無移時急雨催花落。

We can see many named techniques from Monkey’s battle appear in this poem. There are only two years between the publishing of JTTW (1592) and this version of the Water Margin. But it’s very well possible that both authors drew upon common source material.

Joshua discovered two techniques from the Water Margin poem, namely “Phoenix Elbow” (Aoluan zhao, 拗鸞肘), and “The Guard Head Cannon Stance” (Dang toupao shi, 當頭砲勢), appearing together in the same print of an edition of the Collection of Military Works (Wubei zhi, 武備志, c. 1621), a Ming treatise on military armaments and fighting techniques (fig. 17). This suggests that Yu Xiangdou borrowed these moves from similar boxing or military manuals. Likewise, the author-compiler of JTTW may have also borrowed from such literature.

Dangtoupao

Fig. 17 – The print from the Collection of Military Works (Wubei zhi, 武備志, c. 1621) mentioning “Phoenix Elbow” and the “Guard the Head Cannon Stance.”

Update: 05-02-2018

The available evidence suggests that Short Fist (Duanquan, 短拳; a.k.a. “Close-Range Fist”) is Monkey’s fighting style. As mentioned above, the poem in chapter 51 reads: “The ‘Long-Range Fist,’ stretching, is more slack, of course. How could it compare with the ‘Close-Range Fist’s’ sharp jabs?” (長掌開闊自然鬆，怎比短拳多緊削。) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 13). Also, after facing the rhino monster, Sun Wukong asks heavenly warriors to critique his boxing skills:

“As you watched from afar,” said Pilgrim, smiling, “how did the abilities of the fiend compare with old Monkey’s?” “His punches were slack,” said Devaraja Li, “and his kicks were slow; he certainly could not match the Great Sage for his speed and tightness'” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 14).

行者笑道：「列位在此遠觀，那怪的本事，比老孫如何？」李天王道：「他拳鬆腳慢，不如大聖的緊疾。…」

The “speed and tightness” is of course a reference to his use of Short Fist.

In addition, earlier in chapter two, Monkey faces a demon who had taken over his Water Curtain cave in the immortal’s absence. The two resort to boxing since Monkey is unarmed:

The Monstrous King shifted his position and struck out. Wukong closed in on him, hurtling himself into the engagement. The two of them pummeled and kicked, struggling and colliding with each other. Now it’s easy to miss on a long reach, but a short punch is firm and reliable (emphasis added). Wukong jabbed the Monstrous King in the short ribs, hit him on his chest, and gave him such heavy punishment with a few sharp blows that the monster stepped aside, picked up his huge scimitar, aimed it straight at Wukong’s head, and slashed at him (Wu & Yu, 2012, Vol. 1, p. 128).

那魔王丟開架子便打，這悟空鑽進去相撞相迎。他兩個拳搥腳踢，一衝一撞。原來長拳空大，短簇堅牢。那魔王被悟空掏短脅，撞了襠，幾下觔節，把他打重了。他閃過，拿起那板大的鋼刀，望悟空劈頭就砍。

I initially thought Sun Wukong used Short Fist out of necessity as JTTW describes him being less than four feet tall. But the novel’s bias for close-range fighting over long-range was, according to Shahar (2008), “typical of late Ming and early Qing military literature” (p. 117). He continues:

Sixteenth- and seventeenth-century military experts allude to various short-range styles including ‘Cotton Zhang’s Close-Range Fist’ (Mian Zhang duanda [綿張短打]), ‘Ren Family Close-Range Fist’ (Renjia duanda [任家短打]), and ‘Liu [Family] Close-Range Fist’ (Liu duanda [劉短打])” (Shahar, 2008, p. 117).

Wing Chun (Mandarin: Yong Chun, 詠春) is a close-range fighting style similar to Short fist. Although the style postdates the novel by at least two centuries, it showcases the quick, compact punches associated with Short Fist. Take this video of Jackie Chan, for example. Now imagine Monkey using similar techniques in a fight with a much larger opponent, blocking or ducking to avoid attacks and replying with sharp punches targeted at vulnerable areas.

Update: 08-07-2018

I have found a few more instances of martial arts terms, this time related to weapons. Joshua was again kind to lend his knowledge to the subject.

Chapter 17:

The compliant rod,
The black-tasseled lance.
Two men display their power before the cave;
Stabbing at the heart and face;
Striking at the head and arm.
This one proves handy with a death-dealing rod;
That one tilts the lance for swift, triple jabs.
The “white tiger climbing the mountain” extends his paws;
The “yellow dragon lying on the road” turns his back (emphasis added).
With colored mists flying
And bright flashes of light,
Two monster-god’s strength is yet to be tried.
One’s the truth-seeking, Equal-to-Heaven Sage;
One’s the Great Black King who’s now a spirit.
Why wage this battle in the mountain still?
The cassock, for which each would aim to kill! (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 354)

如意棒，黑纓槍，二人洞口逞剛強。分心劈臉刺，著臂照頭傷。這個橫丟陰棍手，那個直撚急三槍。白虎爬山來探爪，黃龍臥道轉身忙。噴彩霧，吐毫光，兩個妖仙不可量。一個是修正齊天聖，一個是成精黑大王。這場山裡相爭處，只為袈裟各不良。

22) “White tiger climbing the mountain” extends his paws (Baihu pashan, 白虎爬山來探爪) – Mountain climbing stance is synonymous with Gong bu (弓步), or the bow stance. The white tiger denotes an overt attack of sorts. I imagine it would look similar to this spear technique.

Gong Bu thrust

23) “Yellow dragon lying on the road” turns his back (Huanglong wo dao zhuanshen mang, 黃龍臥道轉身忙) – Possibly a retreating maneuver.

Chapter 31:

Dear Monkey King! He raised the rod above his head, with both hands, using the style “Tall-Testing the Horse.” The fiend did not perceive that it was a trick. When he saw there was a chance, he wielded the scimitar and slashed at the lower third of Pilgrim’s [Monkey’s] body. Pilgrim quickly employed the “Great Middle Level” to fend off the scimitar, after which he followed up with the style of “Stealing Peaches Beneath the Leaves” and brought the rod down hard on the monster’s head. This one blow made the monster vanish completely (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, p. 83).

好猴王，雙手舉棍，使一個「高探馬」的勢子。那怪不識是計，見有空兒，舞著寶刀，徑奔下三路砍；被行者急轉個「大中平」，挑開他那口刀，又使個「葉底偷桃勢」，望妖精頭頂一棍，就打得他無影無蹤。

24) “Tall-Testing the Horse” (Gao tanma, 高探馬) – Tanma (探馬) refers to a military scout, so a better translation would be the “High Scout.” This is a double-handed thrust aimed at the opponent’s face as a high fake. A corresponding fist technique, essentially a jab, is associated with Taiji boxing.

25) “Great Middle Level” (Da zhong ping, 大中平) – Holding the staff level at the navel while in the horse stance. This allows for quick defense below the waist.

26) “Stealing Peaches Beneath the Leaves” (Ye di tou tao shi, 葉底偷桃勢) – UNKNOWN. The name of this technique is normally associated with an attack to the groin, not the top of the head as implied in the quoted battle.

Based on the sequence of events described above, it seems like Monkey fakes high, blocks the strike to his body, and then attacks the top of the stooping opponent’s head (since the latter ducked the high fake and attacked low).

Here is Joshua’s interpretation:

The two weapons are stuck together: the monkey is forcing down, the demon up. The monkey releases the pressure, circling his staff below the opponents weapon, so with the release of pressure, the opponent’s weapon flings upwards but with no control. The monkey circles from this lower position, then turns over in a big circle and strikes the opponent downwards on the head.

Chapter 56:

The Great Sage walked forward and picked up the rod with no effort at all. Assuming the style of the Python Rearing its Body (emphasis added), he pointed at the bandits and said, “Your lucks running out, for you have met Old Monkey!” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 81).

大聖走上前，輕輕的拿起，丟一個蟒翻身拗步勢，指著強人道：「你都造化低，遇著我老孫了。」

27) Python Rearing its Body (Mang fanshen, 蟒翻身). UNKNOWN. This is a differently translated version of a similarly titled technique mentioned above. See number eight (“Serpent Turning Around”). The previous listing referred to a boxing technique, while this again is for a weapon.

In closing, I would like to quote a particular passage. While it doesn’t list a given technique, it highlights Monkey’s mastery of the staff. Chapter 33 reads:

“Going through this tall mountain and rugged cliff must have made master [Tripitaka] rather apprehensive, that’s all. Don’t be afraid! Don’t be afraid! Let old Monkey put on a show for you with my rod to calm your fears somewhat.” Dear Pilgrim! Whipping out his rod, he began to go through a sequence of maneuvers with his rod as be walked before the horse: up and down, left and right, the thrusts and parries were made in perfect accord with the manuals of martial arts (emphasis added). What the elder saw from the horse was a sight incomparable anywhere in the world (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, p. 105).

行者道：「胡說，師父是走著這深山峻嶺，必然小心虛驚。莫怕，莫怕，等老孫把棒打一路與你壓壓驚。」

好行者，理開棒，在馬前丟幾個解數，上三下四，左五右六，盡按那六韜三略，使起神通。那長老在馬上觀之，真個是寰中少有，世上全無。

The portion that Yu (Wu & Yu, 2012) translates as “manuals of martial arts” actually lists the names of two noted military manuals, both of which are listed among the Seven Military Classics of China. The first, the Six Secret Teachings (Liu tao, 六韜), was published during the Warring States period (c. 475 – 221 BCE) but possibly contains information from as far back as the Qi state (1046 – 221 BCE). The second, the Three Strategies (San lue, 三略), was most likely published during the Western Han period (206 BCE – 9 CE) (Sawyer, 1993).

Associating Monkey’s martial arts skill with ancient military classics only serves to further elevate his status as a great warrior and cultural hero.

Notes

1) Wuyi (武藝) was used to refer to Chinese martial arts as far back as the third-century CE. The term predates the more familiar wushu (武術) by some three centuries (Lorge, 2012, p. 10).

2) Readers may think the “Ancestor of Heart and Mind” (Fangcun zu, 方寸祖) is directly referring to Master Subodhi. However, the supreme immortal threatened Monkey with eternal torment if he ever revealed the sage had been his teacher. A more literal translation of the aforementioned figure is “Patriarch Square Inch” (Fangcun zu, 方寸祖). Square Inch (fangcun, 方寸) is a common metaphor for the “heart / mind” (xin, 心), a broad concept written with a small character. This is just an interesting way of saying Monkey learned martial arts on his own via self-cultivation, thereby not revealing his true master. At the same time, it is a veiled admission of studying martial arts under the sage.

3) For more information on Chang Family Fist and its progenitor Chang Naizhou, see Wells (2005).

4) The dantian (丹田, “cinnabar field”) is an area near the navel believed to be the body’s storehouse of spiritual energy.

Bibliography

Jin, J. Z., & Timofeevich, A. (2004). Training Methods of 72 Arts of Shaolin. USA: Shaolin Kung Fu Online Library. Retrieved from http://files.vse-zajimave.webnode.cz…ts-shaolin.pdf

Lorge, P. A. (2012). Chinese Martial Arts: From Antiquity to the Twenty-First Century. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Sawyer, R. D. (1993). The Seven Military Classics of Ancient China. New York: Basic Books.

Shahar, M. (2008). The Shaolin Monastery: History, Religion, and the Chinese Martial Arts. University of Hawaii Press.

Wells, M., & Chang, N. (2005). Scholar Boxer: Chang Naizhou’s Theory of Internal Martial arts and the Evolution of Taijiquan. Berkeley, Calif: North Atlantic Books.

Wu, C., & Yu, A. C. (2012). The Journey to the West (Vols. 1-4) (Rev. ed.). Chicago, Ill: University of Chicago Press.