Tag Journey to the West

Origin of the Immortal Peach-Stealing Episode from Journey to the West

Jim R. McClanahan Leave a comment

I’ve previously mentioned that the Monkey King has six layers of immortality in Journey to the West (Xiyouji, 西遊記, 1592; “JTTW” hereafter). The third layer is achieved in chapter five when he eats untold numbers of 9,000-year-old immortal peaches (pantao, 蟠桃) while serving as the temporary custodian of the Queen Mother of the West‘s immortal peach garden (fig. 1). Each of these is said to “make a man’s age equal to that of Heaven and Earth, the sun and the moon” (人吃了與天地齊壽，日月同庚。) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 161). This naturally bestows our hero with supreme longevity (but not complete immortality). In this article, I would like to explore the origins of this episode. I suggest that it is based on the theft of divine fruit by a Han-era trickster, as well as by a magic white ape from Song-era religious literature.  

Fig. 1 – Sun Wukong eating immortal peaches (larger version). This is a screenshot from episode 9 of the Little Fox Journey to the West series on YouTube.

1. Literature and mythology

1.2. Literary episode (ch. 4 to 5)

After winning his battle with heaven, Monkey is granted the empty title “Great Sage Equaling Heaven” (Qitian dasheng, 齊天大聖) and given a position in the celestial realm with no official rank, salary, or duty. He spends this time freely traveling the universe and making friends with all sorts of primordial, stellar, and cardinal gods. But his idleness catches the eye of an immortal who reports to the throne the possible negative repercussions of Sun Wukong having too much free time. In response, the Jade Emperor tasks Monkey with temporarily watching over the immortal peach garden, warning him to take the position seriously. Sun immediately performs an inspection of the garden, learning from an underling that of the 3,600 total trees, three groups of immortal peaches respectively ripen every 3,000, 6,000, and 9,000 years.

This new position takes up his time, ending his visits with deities across the cosmos. But one day, he feigns tiredness just so his attendants will leave him alone long enough to strip out off his official clothing and climb trees to eat his fill of fruit. He uses this ruse several times to sate his hunger. However, his theft is soon discovered when the Queen Mother sends seven immortal maidens to procure fruit for her famous Grand Banquet of Immortal Peaches (Pantao shenghui, 蟠桃勝會). Upon their arrival, Monkey is nowhere to be found (having shrunken to miniature size and fallen asleep in the trees), so the underlings allow the maidens into the garden to fulfill their duty. It is there where they discover that most of the oldest peaches have been eaten, and in the process of picking leftovers, a maiden disturbs Sun’s slumber when she pulls down and lets go of the branch that he is sleeping on. Thus awakened, Monkey resumes his normal size and threatens the maidens with his iron staff. But his anger quickly subsides when he learns about the forthcoming banquet and the high-ranking Buddho-Daoist gods that have attended in the past. Being egotistical, Sun inquires as to whether or not he is the guest of honor this year, but when the maidens reveal that they don’t yet know the guest list, he freezes them in place with fixing magic and heads to the banquet hall to find out for himself (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, pp. 157-164).

1.2. Connection to world mythology

This episode is part of a set of closely-related motifs from world mythology. Thompson’s Motif-Index lists the following:

A153.1. Theft of ambrosia. Food of the gods stolen. — Hindu: Keith 139; Persian: Carnoy 283.

[…]

A153.2. Magic food gives immortality to gods. Irish: MacCulloch Celtic 54; India: Thompson-Balys.

D1346.3. Food of immortality.

A153.3. Banquets of the gods. Icel.: MacCulloch Eddic 23; India: Thompson-Balys; Chinese: Werner 137. — So. Am. Indian (Chiriguano): Métraux RMLP XXXIII 178 (source).

In our case, “ambrosia,” “food of the gods,” “magic food,” and “food of immortality” all refer to immortal peaches.

2. History

To my knowledge, one of the oldest sources associating Monkey with the theft of immortal peaches is The Story of How Tripitaka of the Great Tang Procures the Scriptures (Da Tang Sanzang qujing shihua, 大唐三藏取經詩話, c. late-13th-century), the earliest known printed edition of the JTTW story cycle. Chapter 11 sees the pilgrims enter the domain of the Queen Mother during their quest to India. The monk Tripitaka asks Sun’s antecedent, the “Monkey Pilgrim” (Hou xingzhe, 猴行者), to steal some immortal peaches to quench his thirst, but the latter refuses:

Because I stole ten peaches to eat when I was eight hundred years old, I was captured by the Queen Mother and given eight hundred blows on my left side and three thousand blows on the right with an iron cudgel. Then I was exiled to the Purple Cloud Grotto on the Mountain of Flowers and Fruits. Even today my sides hurt and now I definitely don’t dare to steal any more peaches!” (Wivell, 1994, p. 1195).

猴行者曰：「我因八百歲時，偷吃十顆，被王母捉下，左肋判八百，右肋判三千鐵棒，配在花果山紫雲洞。至今肋下尚痛。我今定是不敢偷吃也。」

3. Origins

There are at least two sources that I believe contributed to the peach-stealing episode from JTTW.

3.1. Dongfang Shuo

The first is a story cycle which involves the trickster Dongfang Shuo (東方朔, c. 160–93 BCE) (fig. 2) stealing peaches from the Queen Mother’s garden. The tale appears as early as the Precedents of Wu of Han (Hanwu gushi, 漢武故事), a circa 3rd-century collection of fictionalized stories about Emperor Wu of Han. It records that, after the Emperor was gifted a supernaturally small dwarf, Dongfang claimed it to be a nature spirit of sorts. However:

The dwarf did not reply but pointed at Dongfang Shuo and told the Emperor, “The Queen Mother grows peaches in her Eastern Garden which ripen once every three thousand years. This boy is no good—he’s already stolen the peaches three times! Consequently he fell out of the Queen Mother’s favor, and for this reason he was banished here.” 

The Emperor was quite startled, for he began to understand that Dongfang Shuo was not a man of this world (Smith, 1992, pp. 408-409).

短人不對，因指朔謂上曰：「王母種桃，三千年一作子，此兒不良，已三過偷之矣，遂失王母意，故被謫來此。」上大驚，始知朔非世中人。

[…] 

[During a planned meeting between the Emperor and the Queen Mother] Dongfang Shuo peeked at [her] through the Red Bird Window. Spotting him, she pointed and turned to the Emperor saying, “This boy is fond of mischief. He’s rude and undependable. Three times have the peaches of immortality ripened, and three times he has stolen them. Long ago I banished him and forbade him to return to heaven, thus he has lingered here. Nevertheless his original heart is not evil, and soon he will be able to return. Do treat him well” (Smith, 1992, pp. 416-417).

東方朔於朱鳥牖中窺母，母謂帝曰：「此兒好作罪過，疏妄無賴，久被斥退，不得還天；然原心無惡，尋當得還。帝善遇之。」

[On the day that a celestial envoy presented the emperor with three immortal peaches], Dongfang Shuo died. The Emperor, who had his doubts, asked the envoy about it.

“Dongfang Shuo is the vital essence of the Wood Emperor, who became the planet Jupiter,” she said. “He came down and roamed among men to observe what is below heaven. He is not Your Majesty’s subject.” 

The Emperor gave him a magnificent funeral (Smith, 1992, p. 418).

使至之日，東方朔死。上疑之，問使者。曰：「朔是木帝精為歲星，下游人中，以觀天下，非陛下臣也。」上厚葬之。

Here are some important elements to remember: 

  1. Jupiter-Dongfang Shuo steals peaches from the Queen Mother’s garden.
  2. The planet thrice steals peaches that ripen every 3,000 years.
  3. The thieving celestial is banished from heaven. 

Dongfang’s story is so famous that he even makes an appearance in JTTW. After being introduced as a disciple of the Grand Thearch (Dijun, 帝君) in chapter 26 (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, pp. 7-8), he and Monkey share a brief exchange in which they ridicule each other’s criminal past:

When Pilgrim saw him, he laughed and said, “So, this little crook is here! But there’s no peach at the Grand Thearch’s place for you to steal and eat.” Dongfang Shuo bowed to him and replied, “Old burglar! Why did you come? There’s no divine elixir at my master’s place for you to steal and eat” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, p. 8). [1]

行者見了，笑道：「這個小賊在這裡哩。帝君處沒有桃子你偷吃！」東方朔朝上進禮，答道：「老賊，你來這裡怎的？我師父沒有仙丹你偷吃。」

Irwen Wong of the Journey to the West Library blog has suggested to me that within the novel’s universe, Jupiter-Dongfang Shuo was the previous caretaker of the immortal peach garden. His exile from heaven and rebirth on earth would have vacated the post, leaving it open for Monkey to later take over. This would mean that heaven doesn’t have a good track record with choosing peach garden caretakers.

Fig. 2 – A Ming-era painting of Dongfang Shuo stealing peaches (larger version). Image courtesy of the MET on Wikimedia Commons.

3.2. Sun Bin and White Ape

The second is a story cycle involving the Warring States military strategist Sun Bin (孫臏, d. 316 BCE) (fig. 3) protecting an earthly fruit garden from a magic white ape (baiyuan, 白猿; a.k.a. “gibbon“). The tale appears as early as the Scripture of the Most High Luminous Mirror of the Six Ren Tallying with Yin (Taishang liuren mingjian fuyin jing, 太上六壬明鑑符陰經) (a.k.a., Ape Book, Yuanshu, 猿書), a Northern Song-era work related to the Daoist doctrine of the Three Sovereigns (Steavu, 2019, p. 195). But instead of peaches, the scripture just says “fruit” (guo, 菓). However, I imagine the produce is something special like immortal peaches as Sun guards them with a weapon. A rough translation follows (I have skipped over some of the more esoteric parts that escape me):

[Master Ghost Valley] saw that the fruit had ripened, so he commanded Sun to watch over it. One night a person jumped the wall into the nine gardens and took some of the fruit. But Sun was hiding with a sword and caught the culprit, a white ape. The primate said: “Don’t hurt me! I share the same age as heaven and earth and have lived as long as the sun and moon! I have mysterious texts (xuanwen, 玄文)! Wait for me the next day and I will give them to you.” The white ape then transformed into white light and left. Sun waited the following day. Suddenly, he saw the white ape fly from the northwest. He was given one scroll of mysterious texts. The primate again transformed into white light and headed towards the southeast. Sun then returned to his room to inspect the text. He didn’t know the name but saw that it was divided into three volumes: initial, middle, and final. He named it after the white ape (Taishang liuren, n.d.).

師因園看菓成實，令臏看之。夜忽有一人，踰垣而九園中，盜菓子食之。臏乃潛身，持刀欲補之，乃是白猿也。拿住，忽言曰：汝勿傷吾身，我與天地同生，日月並長，瘍無道炁，結化成形。吾有玄文，汝來日於此處候吾，我傳與汝。臏乃長跪而退，其猿乃化白光而去。至次日，臏乃依期而伺之。忽見白猿自西北乘空而來，授臏玄文一卷。隨時化白光，東南而去。臏將其文而歸，本宿房中點檢，一曰六甲天厭一卷，一日六丁天厭一卷。遺其頭尾，不知是何名目，分上一中下三卷，因日指其白猿為名也。

Here are some important elements to remember:  

  1. Sun Bin looks after a special fruit-bearing garden.
  2. A magic primate steals the fruit.
  3. The primate has divine longevity and the ability to fly and change its shape.

It’s important to note that the aforementioned fruit was eventually called immortal peaches in later iterations of the story cycle. [2]

Fig. 3 – A Ming-era painting of Sun Bin (larger version). Image found on Wikimedia Commons.

4. Putting it all together

I believe that the two story cycles influenced JTTW in at least five ways: 1) Jupiter-Dongfang Shuo and the white ape stealing special fruit connects said produce with the Queen Mother’s immortal peaches; 2) the fruit being stolen by a white ape with divine longevity and the ability to fly and change its shape helps connect Sun Wukong, a fellow magical primate, to the theft of special produce/immortal peaches; 3) Jupiter-Dongfang Shuo thrice stealing peaches that ripen every 3,000 years may have influenced the three kinds of peaches in the Queen Mother’s garden that respectively ripen every 3,000, 6,000, and 9,000 years; 4) Sun Bin looking after a special fruit-bearing garden on earth may have influenced Monkey’s position as the caretaker of the immortal peach garden in heaven. After all, both of their surnames is Sun (孫) (Sun Bin vs Sun Wukong); and 5) Jupiter-Dongfang Shuo being exiled from heaven for stealing the peaches feeds into Monkey’s theft and subsequent actions that ultimately lead to the Buddha banishing him to earth and imprisoning him under Five Elements Mountain.

Notes:

1) Thank you to Irwen Wong for reminding me of this. 

2) For example, The Battle of Wits between Sun and Pang (Sun Pang douzhi yanyi, 孫龐鬥智演義, 1636; a.k.a. The Former and Latter Annals of the Seven Kingdoms, Qianhou qiguo zhi, 前後七國志) uses the term xiantao (仙桃; lit: “immortal peaches”) (Taishang liuren, n.d.).

Sources:

Smith, T. E. (1992). Ritual and the Shaping of Narrative: The Legend of the Han Emperor Wu (Vols. 1-2) (UMI No. 9303824) [Doctoral dissertation, The University of Michigan]. Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database.

Steavu, D. (2019). The Writ of the Three Sovereigns: From Local Lore to Institutional Daoism. Hong Kong: The Chinese University of Hong Kong.

Taishang liuren mingjian fuyin jing juan yi (n.d.). [Book of the Most High Luminous Mirror of the Six Ren Tallying with Yin: First Scroll]. Retrieved from https://ctext.org/wiki.pl?if=gb&chapter=465883#p3

Wivell, C.S. (1994). The Story of How the Monk Tripitaka of the Great Country of T’ang Brought Back the Sūtras. In V. Mair (Ed.), The Columbia Anthology of Traditional Chinese Literature (pp. 1181-1207). New York: Columbia University Press.

Wu, C., & Yu, A. C. (2012). The Journey to the West (Vols. 1-4) (Rev. ed.). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press.

 

What Does Red Boy Look Like? A Resource for Artists and Cosplayers

Jim R. McClanahan Leave a comment

Last updated: 04-30-2024

The demon Red Boy (Honghai’er, 紅孩兒) appears in chapters 40 to 42 of Journey to the West (Xiyouji, 西遊記, 1592; “JTTW” hereafter). He is described as the son of the Bull Demon King (Niu mowang, 牛魔王) and Princess Iron Fan (Tieshan gongzhu, 鐵扇公主), a rakshasi spirit (luocha nu, 羅剎女). Due to his bovine father, Red Boy is sometimes portrayed in modern media and fan art with horns, and because of his youthful appearance, he is often shown wearing a red stomacher. So how do these representations compare to his depiction in the novel, and who has produced the most authentic look? In this article, I will present the demon’s literary description, along with ancient depictions from dynastic China and Korea. My hope is that the information will be both interesting and useful, especially for artists and cosplayers looking to make a more authentic design.

This is part of a series of articles describing JTTW characters. See my previous entries on Sun Wukong and Zhu Bajie.

1. Ancient Depiction

The oldest art featuring Red Boy that I know of appears on the 14th-century Gyeongcheonsa pagoda (Kyŏngch’ŏnsa sipch’ŭng sŏkt’ap, 경천사십층석탑) from Korea. The second level of the pagoda’s multifaceted three-tiered base contains a total of 20 carved scenes from the JTTW story cycle. The 19th carving depicts the character’s defeat in a scene that would come to appear in the 1592 JTTW. [1] Reading it from left to right, Sha Wujing and Zhu Bajie stand by the dragon horse as they watch the cloud-borne Guanyin enact her divine plan of capturing Red Boy, who is shown impaled on a lotus throne full of celestial swords. And to the child-sage’s left, the Bodhisattva’s disciple, Hui’an/Mucha, hammers at the swords with his staff while sitting on Sun Wukong’s shoulders in a symbolic display of teamwork (fig. 1 & 2).

Fig. 3 (top) – The complete 19th JTTW carving on the second tier of Gyeongcheonsa pagoda (larger version). Image from Wall (2019). Fig. 4 (bottom) – A detail of Red Boy trapped on the lotus throne of swords (L) and an accompanying line drawing for clarity (R) (larger version). 

2. What the novel says

2.1. Physical appearance

The fullest description of Red Boy appears in chapter 41:

A face as if it had been powdered white,
And lips so ruddy, they seemed brushed with paint.
No dye could create such dark, coiled hair;
His eyebrows curved like new moons carved with knives.
Phoenix and dragon coiled on his battle kilt;
More husky than Nezha‘s frame he had.
With air imposing he lifted up his lance
And walked out the door, swathed in hallowed light.
He roared like thunder in the time of spring;
His striking eyes flashed like lightning bright.
If one would know his true identity,
Remember Red Boy, a name of lasting fame
(based on Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, pp. 222-223).

面如傅粉三分白，唇若塗朱一表才。
鬢挽青雲欺靛染，眉分新月似刀裁。
戰裙巧繡盤龍鳳，形比哪吒更富胎。
雙手綽槍威凜冽，祥光護體出門來。
哏聲響若春雷吼，暴眼明如掣電乖。
要識此魔真姓氏，名揚千古喚紅孩。

This description speaks of porcelain doll-like beauty and a chubby body. The original Chinese states that his hair is “rolled or coiled at the temples” (binwan, 鬢挽). This could mean his hair is in buns or coils. I’ll leave it up to the reader as to which one you like more.

It’s important to highlight that the poem does not mention horns. An in-canon explanation for this could be because Red Boy’s mother, Princess Iron Fan, had already “attained the way of humanity” (i.e. a human form) via spiritual cultivation (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 162). Perhaps this resulted in the demon-sage having a more human-like appearance. Or, given his own 300-plus years of austerities (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, p. 219), he too has attained human form.

Interestingly, Ming-era woodblock prints don’t portray him with horns either. See figures four and five below.

2.2. Clothing

Red Boy is described as being lightly clothed and barefooted:

With no other armor except a battle kilt of embroidered silk and with naked feet, the monster king took up the lance and walked outside (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, p. 222).

妖王掄槍拽步，也無甚麼盔甲，只是腰間束一條錦繡戰裙，赤著腳，走出門前。

So his attire consists of a single silken battle kilt, [2] which is, as mentioned in the poem above, embroidered with dragons and phoenixes. This would mean that Red Boy is bare-chested on top of having no footwear.

But what exactly does a “battle kilt” (zhanqun, 戰裙) look like? One example comes from a set of brigandine armor of the Qing dynasty (1636–1912). It covers the entire lower half of the body down to the ground (fig. 4). I imagine that Red Boy’s kilt would be red given his name and association with fire.

One late-Ming woodblock print portrays this clothing, adding a divine sash and an embroidered stomacher (fig. 3).

Fig. 3 (left) – An example of Qing-era brigandine armor with a battle kilt (larger version). Image found here. Fig. 4 (right) – A detail of Red Boy’s attire from Mr. Li Zhuowu’s Literary Criticism of Journey to the West (Li Zhuowu Xiansheng piping Xiyouji, 李卓吾先生批評西遊記, late-16th or early-17th-century) (larger version).

2.3. Weapon

Prior to walking outside to face the Monkey King, the demon calls for his giant, fiery spear:

“Bring me my lance,” he ordered. Those fiends who looked after weapons had two of them carry out a ten zhang eight chi fire-tipped lance [huojian qiang, 火尖槍] to hand over to the monster king (based on Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, p. 222).

教取過槍來。有那一夥管兵器的小妖，著兩個擡出一桿丈八長的火尖槍，遞與妖王。

One zhang (丈) comprises ten chi (尺, a.k.a. “Chinese feet”), and one chi is roughly 12.3 in (31.8 cm). This makes one zhang 10.43 ft (3.18 m) (Jiang, 2005, p. xxxi). Therefore, Red Boy’s weapon is roughly 18.77 ft (5.724 m) long. That’s one long spear!

A woodblock print from the original 1592 JTTW shows an armored Red Boy wielding his weapon (fig. 5).

Fig. 5 – Red Boy wields his spear and holy flame against Monkey and Zhu Bajie (larger version). Image from the Newly Printed, Illustrated, Deluxe and Large Character, Journey to the West (Xinke chuxiang guanban dazi Xiyou ji, 新刻出像官板大字西遊記, 1592).

3. Popular depictions

As far as I know, there have not been any novel accurate portrayals of Red Boy in popular media. But I figured that I would post images from the most famous TV shows.

3.1. 1986 JTTW

He is portrayed with a hair tuft and coils, a red urna, a red cape, a red stomacher, and red slippers (fig. 6).

Fig. 6 – “Adorable Red Boy” (larger version). Image found here.

3.2. 1996 JTTW

He is portrayed by a young woman with two red ribbon-wrapped, white cloth-covered hair buns and a white undershirt and a red vest, red forearm cuffs, red shorts, and red slippers (fig. 7).

Fig. 7 – “Girl Red Boy” (larger version). Image found here.

3.3. 2011 JTTW

He is portrayed with a hair tuft, red horns, a dark red to brown suit of armor with a flame pattern, and a red cape (fig. 8).

Fig. 8 – “Armored Red Boy” (larger version). The original online source is no longer available.

4. Conclusion

JTTW chapter 41 describes Red Boy as having doll-like beauty with a powder white face, crescent moon-shaped eyebrows, and deep red lips. His dark hair is either wrapped in buns or hung in coils. He is shoeless, and the only clothing covering his husky body is a silken battle kilt embroidered with phoenixes and dragons. And his weapon is an 18.77 ft (5.724 m) long, fired-tipped spear.

Update: 03-25-24

It occurred to me that the following description …

With no other armor except a battle kilt of embroidered silk and with naked feet … (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, p. 222).

妖王掄槍拽步，也無甚麼盔甲，只是腰間束一條錦繡戰裙，赤著腳 …

… does not necessarily exclude other clothing. Red Boy could wear some kind of silk robe beneath the battle kilt. However, I think him being shirtless better fits with his ferocious nature.

Update: 04-30-24

Chapter 42 indicates that Red Boy has a full head of hair that is later shaved by Guanyin:

She took out from her sleeve a golden razor and approached the fiend. With a few strokes, she shaved his hair off and turned it into the style of the Tai Mountain Crowning the Head: the top was completely bald, but three tufts of hair were left around the edge so that they could be knotted together into three tiny braids (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, p. 250).

就袖中取出一把金剃頭刀兒，近前去，把那怪分頂剃了幾刀，剃作一個太山壓頂，與他留下三個頂搭，挽起三個窩角揪兒。

This contrasts with modern representations of Red Boy that already have this shaven hair style prior to being subjugated. Refer back to section 3.

Notes:

1) Chapter 42 reads:

After she received [treasure swords borrowed from heaven], the Bodhisattva [Guanyin] threw them into the air as she recited a spell: the swords were transformed into a thousand-leaf lotus platform. Leaping up, the Bodhisattva sat solemnly in the middle.

菩薩接在手中，拋將去，念個咒語，只見那刀化作一座千葉蓮臺。菩薩縱身上去，端坐在中間。

[…]

[Sun Wukong feigns defeat and tricks Red Boy into chasing him to Guayin’s domain] When the monster spirit suddenly discovered that Pilgrim was gone, he walked up to the Bodhisattva with bulging eyes and said to her, “Are you the reinforcement Pilgrim Sun brought here?” The Bodhisattva did not reply. Rolling the lance in his hands, the monster king bellowed, “Hey! Are you the reinforcement Pilgrim Sun brought here?” Still the Bodhisattva did not reply. The monster-spirit lifted his lance and jabbed at the heart of the Bodhisattva, who at once changed herself into a beam of golden light and rose into the air. Pilgrim followed her on her way up and said to her, “Bodhisattva, you are trying to take advantage of me! The monster-spirit asked you several times. How could you pretend to be deaf and dumb and not make any noise at all? One blow of his lance, in fact, chased you away, and you have even left behind your lotus platform.”

“Don’t talk,” said the Bodhisattva, “let’s see what he will do.” At this time, Pilgrim and [Mucha] both stood in the air shoulder to shoulder and stared down; they found the monster-spirit laughing scornfully and saying to himself, “Brazen ape, you’re mistaken about me! What sort of person do you think that I, Holy Child, happen to be? For several times you could not prevail against me, and then you had to go and fetch some namby-pamby Bodhisattva. One blow of my lance now has made her vanish completely. Moreover, she has even left the treasure lotus platform behind. Well, let me get up there and take a seat.” Dear monster-spirit. He imitated the Bodhisattva by sitting in the middle of the platform with hands and legs folded. When he saw this, Pilgrim said, “Fine! Fine! Fine! This lotus platform has been given to someone else!”

“Wukong,” said the Bodhisattva, “what are you mumbling again?”

“Mumbling what? Mumbling what?” replied Pilgrim. “I’m saying that the lotus platform has been given to someone else. Look! It’s underneath his thighs. You think he’s going to return it to you?”

“I wanted him to sit there,” said the Bodhisattva.

“Well, he’s smaller than you,” said Pilgrim, “and it seems that the seat fits him even better than it fits you.”

“Stop talking,” said the Bodhisattva, “and watch the dharma power.”

She pointed the willow twig downward and cried, “Withdraw!” All at once, flowers and leaves vanished from the lotus platform and the auspicious luminosity dispersed entirely. The monster king, you see, was sitting actually on the points of those swords. The Bodhisattva then gave this command to [Mucha]:

“Use your demon-routing cudgel and strike back and forth at the sword handles.”

Dropping from the clouds, [Mucha] wielded his cudgel as if he were demolishing a wall: he struck at the handles hundreds of times. As for that monster-spirit,

Both his legs were pierced till the points stuck out;
Blood spouted in pools as flesh and skin were torn.

Marvelous monster! Look at him! Gritting his teeth to bear the pain, he abandoned the lance so that he could use both hands to try to pull the swords out from his body … (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, pp. 246 and 249-250).

這妖精見沒了行者。走近前，睜圓眼，對菩薩道：「你是孫行者請來的救兵麼？」菩薩不答應。妖王撚轉長槍，喝道：「咄！你是孫行者請來的救兵麼？」菩薩也不答應。妖精望菩薩劈心刺一槍來。那菩薩化道金光，徑走上九霄空內。行者跟定道：「菩薩，你好欺伏我罷了，那妖精再三問你，你怎麼推聾裝啞，不敢做聲，被他一槍搠走了，卻把那個蓮臺都丟下耶？」菩薩只教：「莫言語，看他再要怎的。」

此時行者與木叉俱在空中，並肩同看。只見那妖呵呵冷笑道：「潑猴頭，錯認了我也。他不知把我聖嬰當作個甚人，幾番家戰我不過，又去請個甚麼膿包菩薩來卻被我一槍，搠得無形無影去了，又把個寶蓮臺兒丟了。且等我上去坐坐。」好妖精，他也學菩薩，盤手盤腳的坐在當中。行者看見道：「好好好，蓮花臺兒好送人了。」菩薩道：「悟空，你又說甚麼？」行者道：「說甚？說甚？蓮臺送了人了。那妖精坐放臀下，終不得你還要哩？」菩薩道：「正要他坐哩。」行者道：「他的身軀小巧，比你還坐得穩當。」菩薩叫：「莫言語，且看法力。」

他將楊柳枝往下指定，叫一聲：「退！」只見那蓮臺花彩俱無，祥光盡散，原來那妖王坐在刀尖之上。即命木叉：「使降妖杵，把刀柄兒打打去來。」那木叉按下雲頭，將降魔杵如築牆一般，築了有千百餘下。那妖精穿通兩腿刀尖出，血注成汪皮肉開。好怪物，你看他咬著牙，忍著痛，且丟了長槍，用手將刀亂拔 …

2) Padded silk armor was apparently used in ancient China as early as 600 CE (Dean, 1920, pp. 284-285).

Sources:

Dean, B. (1920). Helmets and Body Armor in Modern Warfare. United Kingdom: Yale University Press.

Jiang, Y. (2005). The Great Ming Code / Da Ming Lu. Vancouver, Wa: University of Washington Press.

Wall, B. (2019). Dynamic Texts as Hotbeds for Transmedia Storytelling: A Case Study of the Story Universe of the Journey to the West. International Journal of Communication 13, 2116-2142. Retrieved from https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/10006/2648.

Wu, C., & Yu, A. C. (2012). The Journey to the West (Vols. 1-4) (Rev. ed.). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press.

Archive #45 – Tripitaka Seeks the Scriptures: A Rare Journey to the West Puppet Play from Quanzhou, Fujian

Jim R. McClanahan Leave a comment

The Journey to the West Research blog is proud to host a joint post by the very knowledgeable @ryin-silverfish of Tumblr and myself. They managed to track down a digital copy of the script for Tripitaka Seeks the Scriptures (Sanzang Qujing, 三藏取经), an extremely rare Journey to the West (Xiyouji, 西遊記; “JTTW” hereafter) puppet play from Quanzhou, Fujian province, China (fig. 1). This prompt book was first transcribed during the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), but internal characteristics date it to sometime after the late-13th-century JTTW and before or concurrent with the early-Ming JTTW zaju play. Needless to say, this is a super important addition to JTTW studies as it likely serves as a “missing link” between the northern and southern traditions of the story cycle (Hu, 2017a; 2017b). The strange thing is that I’ve never read anything about the play in any English sources on JTTW. This fact demonstrates just how rare and precious the play is.

The work contains familiar episodes, like Monkey’s havoc and punishment, Tripitaka‘s tumultuous childhood and vow to retrieve scriptures from India; Sun Wukong and Zhu Bajie becoming his disciples, etc. (This and other parallels presented below perhaps point to the play’s influence on the later 1592 edition of the novel. Or, at the very least, this points to them drawing upon the same source.) But the play also has some very interesting differences: Tripitaka is adopted by Tang Emperor Taizong, thus becoming a prince; Monkey is imprisoned in a crystal well for his past misdeeds; Sha Wujing is the one transformed into a white horse; and Erlang becomes the Tang Monk’s disciple after being punished for flirting with a heavenly maiden. Read on for a full Chinese script and English synopsis below.

Fig. 1 – An example of modern Quanzhou string puppetry depicting a battle between Sun Wukong and Princess Iron Fan (larger version). Image found here.

I. The Chinese Script

@ryin-silverfish: The source of this text is quite obscure, only featured in a 1999 Chinese collection of puppet theater plays published by the Quanzhou Regional Opera Research Society.

Name of the book: 泉州地方戲曲研究社編，《泉州傳統戲曲叢書》第十卷《傀儡戲•目連全簿》（北京：中國戲劇出版社，1999)。

Unsurprisingly, I have no way of getting my hands on an actual copy of the book, so the Chinese text here came from a Tieba user who did, and then someone helpfully uploaded it onto Baidu Cloud Drive.

Just something to keep in mind.

PDF File:

https://docs.google.com/document/d/10XhOpvLFrdcSaqyrhY_4MmiXylSGNhWutcgv6Ngen3M/edit

Jim: Here is a backup just in case.

Click to access Quanzhou-Puppet-Theatre-JTTW.pdf

II. English Summary

@ryin-silverfish: Disclaimer – This is a very rough chapter-by-chapter summary of the play, which was first transcribed in the Qing dynasty and appeared to be written in the local dialect. As I do not speak Hokkien, nuances are likely lost and errors made.

Jim: I have added italicized explanatory notes to @ryin-silverfish’s summary below. I formatted the section as such so that readers will have more context at hand. This way, you won’t have to constantly scroll down to the footnotes. Also, I have added links, as well as more hanzi and pinyin. I don’t (yet) know Hokkien either, so I apologize for not adding the corresponding romanization.

Chapter 1: Meeting the Buddha (Jian Fozu, 见佛祖)

Tripitaka (Sanzang, 三藏; a.k.a. Xuanzang, 玄奘) sings his backstory, which is pretty much the same as the JTTW novel version, minus the revenge part, and with a few more details: he was found by Li Gong (李公) and raised under the name “River Float” (Jiang Liu’er, 江流儿) in the Golden Mountain Temple (Jinshan Si, 金山寺). [A] As an adult, he later traveled to become a monk at the Immortal Peach Temple (Pantao Si, 蟠桃寺). Tang Emperor Taizong came there one day to sponsor a mass and present incense, and being impressed by the monk’s arhat-like aura, made him his adopted son, “Prince Tripitaka” (Sanzang Taizi, 三藏太子). [B]

The royal monk is praying to the “Buddha of the Southern Seas” (Nanhai Fozu, 南海佛祖, a.k.a. Guanyin), when the goddess arrives to ask what is bothering him. He worries that the monks who travel outside the temple might be tempted by worldly things, so he vows that day to retrieve scriptures from India in order to save them from negative karmic fate. [C] In response, Guanyin first tells him that the journey will be perilous, with untold dangers along the way. Then, she tells Tripitaka of the “Great Sage Equaling Heaven” (Qitian Dasheng, 齐天大圣), who had been imprisoned in a well for stealing the Jade Emperor’s wine in the past. Next, she recommends recruiting the Great Sage to protect the monk on the trip, and to that end gives him a “Precious Sash of Infinity” (Wujin Baodi, 无尽宝绦) and a golden headband, two heavenly treasures needed to respectively free and submit the spirit. Finally, Guanyin gives him a ringed staff, an alms bowl, and straw slippers before sending him on his way.

A) Tripitaka is found as a baby by the monk Faming (Faming Heshang, 法明和尚), the holy abbot of the Golden Mountain Temple, in JTTW chapter nine. He gives the baby the same name, “River Float” (Jiang Liu/er, 江流/儿) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 222).

B) The monk becomes Tang Emperor Taizong’s bond brother (xiongdi, 兄弟) in JTTW chapter 12 (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 290). The monarch even refers to him as his “Royal Brother” (yudi, 御弟) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 291, for example).

C) The Tang Monk’s reason for the trip is different in the novel: he is chosen to procure scriptures of the “Great Vehicle” (Dacheng, 大乘; i.e. Mahayana texts) in order to perform a “Grand Mass of Land and Water (Shuilu Dahui, 水陆大会), which will free untold numbers of abandoned souls from the underworld (Wu & Y, 2012, vol. 1, pp. 275 and 286-290). This is more in line with Tang Taizong’s mass in the play.

Chapter 2: Monkey in a Well (Zuojing Hou, 坐井猴)

Sun Wukong sings his backstory inside the well: he was as old as heaven and earth and had eleven brothers, a.k.a. the “Eleven Luminaries” (Shiyi Yao Xingjun, 十一曜星君). [D-F] Turning into a mosquito and flying into the celestial realm, he ate twelve peaches of immortality and three, multi-ton alms bowls full of Laozi’s golden elixir pills and drank 3,000 jars of heavenly wine. [G]

In a drunken haze, Monkey drank so much water from the Eastern Sea that the Dragon King’s palace was exposed, causing the monarch, together with every other deity he had pissed off, to complain to the Jade Emperor.

After he was captured by the combined forces of Erlang, Nezha, Devaraja Li Jing, the Curtain-Raising General Deng Hua (Juanlian Denghua, 卷帘邓化), and celestial soldiers, the plot, again, proceeds the same as in the JTTW novel. This includes his failed execution, sentence to the eight trigrams furnace, wager with the Buddha, and his defeat under “Five-Fingers Mountain” (Wuzhi Shan, 五指山; a.k.a. “Five Elements Mountain“). The only thing different is his place of imprisonment: the power-nullifying, 10,000 zhang deep “Dazzling Crystal Well” under the Wild Horse Bridge of Youzhou (Youzhou Yema Qiao xia wanzhang Huashan Liuli Jing, 幽州野马桥下万丈花闪琉璃井). [H-J]

Monkey is told that only when “flowers bloom on iron trees” (tieshu kaihua, 铁树开花) will he be released. Shortly thereafter, Guanyin shows up in his dreams and mentions Tripitaka, and the chapter ends with him crying out the monk’s name, hoping he might be heard.

D) Monkey formally introduces himself as Sun Wukong (xing Sun ming Wukong, 姓孙名悟空). But this name only appears twice in the entire play. He is primarily called “Equaling Heaven” (Qitian, 齐天). It appears a total of 286 times, including only two uses of “Great Sage Equaling Heaven” (Qitian Dasheng, 齐天大圣) (ch. 2 & 4). He is twice referred to in chapter four as the “Monkey Whose Greatness Equals Heaven” (Yuansun Qitian, 猿孙大齐天) (refer to the PDF). The present summary primarily uses Sun Wukong and Monkey out of tradition. 

E) Monkey’s stated age, “the same as Heaven and Earth” (yu tiandi tonggeng, 与天地同庚) (refer to the PDF), is different from the novel. Calculations based on internal story details suggest that he was born around the year 500 BCE during the late-Zhou Dynasty (c. 1046-256 BCE). 

F) The “Eleven Luminaries” (Shiyi Yao Xingjun, 十一曜星君) are a combination of nine sinicized Hindu astrological deities and two East Asian astrological deities. They include the Sun (Taiyang xing, 太陽星), Moon (Taiyin xing, 太阴星), Mars (Huoxing, 火星), Mercury (Shuixing, 水星), Jupiter (Muxing, 木星), Venus (Jinxing, 金星), Saturn (Tuxing, 土星), Rahu (Luohou, 罗睺), Ketu (Jidu, 奇都), and two shadowy planets called Yuebei xing (月孛星) and Ziqi (紫气). See figure one here for a circa 13th-century image of these gods. I don’t know if these are supposed to be his biological siblings or just bond brothers. But Wukong does take the “Nine Luminaries” (Jiu Yaoxing, 九曜星), the aforementioned sinified stellar gods, as his bond brothers in JTTW chapter five (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 160). He later fights and singlehandedly defeats them all during his rebellion (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 171).

Monkey does have biological brothers and sisters in two Yuan–Ming stage plays (see the 12-20-23 update here). One is a sister called the “Iron-Colored Macaque” (Tiese Mihou, 铁色狝猴) (refer to this PDF). In the puppet play, Laozi refers to Monkey as an “iron bone-colored macaque” (Tiegu Se Mihou, 铁骨色猕猴) because his body is immune to harm. I’m not sure where these terms come from. They might be connected to the tiese (铁色), a kind of fruit-bearing tree in Asia. Perhaps macaques were associated with eating its fruit. Also, I should note that Monkey is called the “Great Sage Steel Muscles and Iron Bones” (Gangjin Tiegu Dasheng, 钢筋铁骨大圣) at the end of the late-13th-century JTTW.

G) Monkey is punished in JTTW chapter five for a host of crimes, including eating countless immortal peaches, ruining a celestial banquet, drinking copious amounts of heavenly wine, and eating all of Laozi’s elixir pills (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, pp. 162 and 165-166).

H) One zhang (丈) comprises ten chi (尺, a.k.a. “Chinese feet”), and one chi is roughly 31.8 cm (12.3 in). This makes one zhang 3.18 m (10.43 ft) (Jiang, 2005, p. xxxi). Ten-thousand zhang (wanzhang, 万丈) would therefore be 31,800 m (104,300 ft). That’s one deep well!

The Water Margin (Shuihu Zhuan, 水浒传, c. 1400), another famous Chinese vernacular novel, also contains a 10,000 zhang deep pit (wanzhang shenqian dixue, 万丈深浅地穴) used to imprison 108 stellar spirits (Shi & Luo, 1975/2021a, vol. 1, p. 15). Shapiro translates this as “a pit 100,000 feet deep” (Shi & Luo, 1993/2021b, vol. 1, p.15). But the use of 10,000 zhang is likely referring to an infinitely deep, inescapable abyss.

This idea can be traced to a Song-era Daoist ritual in which an exorcist draws the character for “well” (jing, 井/丼) on the ground. This divides the ritual space into nine sections, representing the Nine Palaces (Jiugong, 九宮) (stellar groupings comprising the cosmos), thereby creating an earth prison to incarcerate evil spirits. The Compilation of Rituals of the Way (Daofa huiyuan, 道法会元) reads:

[U]se the Sword mudrā to draw the character for “well” on the ground. Transform it into a black prison, ten-thousand zhang deep, and ten thousand li wide. Black vapors burst out of it. Inside the prison, visualize how cangues and locks, as well as tools and machinery are laid out. Then recite the Spell for Fast Arrest.

右用劍訣，就地劃一井字。化為黑獄，深萬丈，闊萬里。黑炁衝騰。存獄中枷鎖、噐械備列；就念「促捉咒」(Meulenbeld, 2007, p. 142).

Therefore, Monkey’s imprisonment was likely influenced by this Daoist rite.

I) It’s important to note that liuli (琉璃), the material comprising his prison, has a connection to Buddhism. For example, it is mentioned in Indian Buddhist sources under it’s Pali/Sanskrit equivalent, vaiḍūrya (वैडूर्य), as one of the seven precious substances, along with gold, silver, pearls, etc. Modern translators of said sources associate vaiḍūrya with shiny, translucent beryl and cat’s eye gemstones. But the Chinese originally associated vaiḍūrya/liuli with opaque, dark blue, and sometimes golden-speckled lapis lazuli (Winder, 1990). This is why the Chinese name of the Medicine Buddha, Yaoshi Liuli Guangwang Rulai (藥師琉璃光如來), is translated as the “Medicine Master [of] Lapis Lazuli Light Tathāgata” (for example).

This would suggest that Wukong’s prison is not crystal but lapis lazuli, perhaps with golden speckles, which would explain the “dazzle” (huashan, 花闪) part of the well’s name. And since he is held fast there by the Buddha’s seal (see chapter 4 below), the medium of his jail is likely influenced by Buddhism. This would make his prison a joint Buddho-Daoist punishment.

J) Youzhou (幽州) was an ancient prefecture in what is now Heibei province, China.

Chapter 3: Farewell Banquet (Paishu, 派数)

Zhangsun Wuji, historically Taizong’s minister, is preparing a farewell banquet for Prince Tripitaka. It’s mostly a list of dishes; not much to see here.

Chapter 4: Monkey Joins (Shou Hou, 收猴)

Tripitaka attends Zhangsun Wuji’s farewell banquet, and then begins his journey to the west. The Buddha Maitreya sees him about to reach a wide river, uncrossable by boats, and sends Shancai to assist him by covering the river in lotus flowers.

Tripitaka steps over the lotuses and crosses the “Nine-Rank, No Boats River” (Jiupin Wuchuan Jiang, 九品无船江). Keep on keeping on, he hears someone calling out his name, but doesn’t see the caller. The local god of the soil shows up to inform him that it is the Great Sage Equaling Heaven, yelling from inside his well.

The monk removes the Buddha’s seal on the well cover by reciting the “Three-Jewels Mantra” (Sanbao zhenyan, 三宝真言), and then he uses the Precious Sash to lift Sun Wukong out of the well, thereby breaking the iron locks holding him down.

Tripitaka asks Monkey to escort him to the Western Heaven, but the spirit only wants to go back to Flower-Fruit Mountain. Sun Wukong agrees to have his head shaved just so he can bail out after a few li. [K] Unfortunately for him, he also agrees to wear the golden headband, and right after he speeds away, Tripitaka recites the tightening sutra and forces him to return.

Monkey finally relents and agrees to protect Tripitaka on the journey to India. He takes this as an opportunity to bring out the “luggage” from his ear: the 30,000 catty “As-You-Wish Staff” (Qianjun Ruyi Bang, 千钧如意棒; a.k.a. the “Golden-Hooped As-You-Wish Staff,” Jingu Ruyi Bang, 金箍如意棒), forged by the sage-king Yu the Great. [L & M]

K) Wukong also sports a shaven head in the novel. For instance, in JTTW chapter 27, he states:

But ever since Nirvana delivered me from my sins, when with my hair shorn I took the vow of complete poverty and followed you as your disciple, I had this gold fillet clamped on my head… (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, p. 24).

自从涅槃罪度，削发秉正沙门，跟你做了徒弟，把这个金箍儿勒在我头上 …

L) The staff’s weight is based on a thousand multiples of 30 catties (jun, 钧). One catty (jin, 斤) is 590 grams (Elvin, 2004, p. 491 n. 133). Therefore, 30,000 catties would be roughly 17,700 kg or 39,021.82 lbs. But 30,000 is likely used here to refer to an unimaginably large number (i.e. Wukong’s staff is REALLY heavy). 

The novel staff weighs 13,500 catties (cf. Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 135). This equals 7,965 kg or 17,559.81 lbs.

M) The literary weapon also has a slightly different name: the “As-You-Wish Gold-Banded staff” (Ruyi Jingu Bang, 如意金箍棒). (Notice how ruyi (如意) and jingu (金箍) are switched around from the play’s staff name.) In addition, it is said to have been used by Yu the Great in the past to conquer the world flood (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 135). But the staff’s creation is attributed to both Laozi (ch. 75) and Yu (ch. 88) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, pp. 375; vol. 4, 201).

Chapter 5: The Horse Joins (Shou Ma, 收马)

The “Deep Sand God” of Black Sand Cave (Heisha Dong Shensha Shen, 黑沙洞深沙神, i.e. Sha Wujing) sits in his abode, [N] looking to grab some travelers to eat, and soon, he comes across Tripitaka and Sun Wukong. He seizes the monk first, then tries to grab the monkey but seemingly fails.

Sun Wukong, using his magic “Fiery Eyes and Golden Irises” (Huoyan Jinjing, 火眼金睛), figures out it was the Deep Sand God, and then goes into his cave for a rescue mission. They banter and proceed to fight. Knowing that the old monkey spirit is vulnerable to 1) flames and 2) water, [O] the Deep Sand God sets a fire inside his cave, forcing Sun Wukong to flee to the South Sea for help.

Guanyin decides to come along and asks Sun Wukong to bring her alms bowl, too. When they confront the Deep Sand God again, Guanyin presents a wager to him: if he can lift her alms bowl (boyu, 钵盂), both she and Tripitaka will be his food.

The monster tries but is unable to lift it. [P] Sun Wukong then lifts the bowl, tosses it onto his head, and attempts to slay the Deep Sand God. But Guanyin spares him on the condition that he will turn into a white horse and become Tripitaka’s steed. [Q]

N) The “Deep Sand God” (Shensha Shen, 深沙神) appears as a desert demon in (the incomplete) chapter eight of the late-13th-century JTTW. He claims to have eaten Tripitaka’s two previous incarnations on their journey to India. The monster only helps the pilgrims cross the “Deep Sands” (Shensha, 深沙) via a magical golden bridge once he is threatened with heavily retribution. Memorial poems note that Tripitaka releases the Spirit from a 500-year-long curse, and Monkey promises to speak highly of him when they meet the Buddha (Wivell, 1994, pp. 1190-1191).

O) Monkey is shown to be weak to “True Samadhi Fire” (Sanmei zhenhuo, 三昧真火), an intense flame born from spiritual cultivation, in JTTW chapter 41 (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, pp. 230-23). And he is shown throughout the novel to be a less proficient fighter in water (ch. 21, for example) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, pp. 423-424).

P) This is reminiscent of JTTW chapter 42, when Guanyin challenges Wukong to pick up her porcelain vase, which contains an ocean full of water. He is unsuccessful (see the 07-03-22 update here). The Deep Sand God’s inability to raise the alms bowl is likely related to monk Faxian‘s story about the immovable quality of Buddha’s almsbowl (Faxian & Legge, 1886/1965, pp. 34-35).

Q) In the novel, the white horse is a transformed dragon prince. He is forced to become Tripitaka’s steed after eating the original horse in chapter 15 (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 328).

Chapter 6: Erlang Joins (Shou Erlang, 收二郎)

Erlang sings his backstory. The previous year, he harassed a Jade Maiden messenger (Chuanyan Yunu, 传言玉女) on a bridge in Tianjin (Tianjin Qiaotou, 天津桥头), provoking the Jade Emperor’s wrath and causing him to cut off sacrifices and worship to Erlang. After the intervention of Guanyin, he was sent to Mt. Guankou (灌口山) (in Sichuan) as a guardian deity, but often preyed on passing mortals and ate their flesh. [R]

The POV switches to Tripitaka and Wukong; the latter sees a black cloud blocking his way, and suspecting it to be a demon, he asks his master to hide while he checks. Erlang reveals his identity and suggests that he will catch the monk and share his flesh with “Elder Brother Qi” (Qige, 齐哥) (i.e. Monkey).

Wukong promptly chews him out and reveals that Tripitaka is the reincarnation of the Golden Chan Arhat (Jinchan Luohan, 金禅罗汉), [S] who attended a lantern festival without notifying his fellow monks and was punished by the Buddha to experience 36 perils (sanshiliu jie, 三十六劫) on his journey to the west. [T]

After getting a monk makeover, Erlang becomes Tripitaka’s disciple.

R) This is reminiscent of Zhu Bajie’s backstory from JTTW chapter 18. After being stripped of his divine post and exiled to earth for forcing himself on a moon maiden, Pigsy becomes a meat-eating spirit (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 212).

S) Tripitaka’s past divine title, the “Golden Chan Arhat” (Jinchan Luohan,金禅罗汉), is similar to that from JTTW, “Master Golden Cicada” (Jinchan Zi, 金蝉子). Chan (as in Chan Buddhism) and chan (蝉, “cicada”) look and sound similar.

T) Master Golden Cicada is exiled from heaven for sleeping during the Buddha’s lecture. The fullest explanation for this appears in chapter 81 (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 4, p. 82). Another part of his punishment is experiencing 81 perils, which happen throughout the novel. Eighty of these are listed, with the final one happening shortly thereafter, in chapter 99 (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 4, pp. 358-363).

Chapter 7: Pigsy Joins (Shou Zhu, 收猪)

Zhu Bajie (猪八戒), the pig demon of Mt. Song (嵩山; later called “Pig Excrement Mountain,” Zhushi Shan, 猪屎山), is hungry for human flesh, and so he decides to whip up some smoke and seize some unaware travelers under its cover. Just like the two villains before him, he picks the pilgrims as his target.

Wukong fights him, subdues him, and he joins the party.

Chapter 8: Spiderly Woe (Zhizhu Men, 蜘蛛闷)

Lady Earth-Raised (Diyang Furen, 地养夫人), the spider demoness of Mt. Hua (Hua Shan, 华山), has a problem. She might be the youngest sister of the “Three Saints of Mt. Song” (Song Shan Sansheng Langjun, 嵩山三圣郎君), [U] living on her silk webs, but she is still single and unmarried. As such, she commands her imps to patrol the mountains daily, so as to kidnap a fine man as her future husband.

The imps soon spot a group of people under the mountain: a monkey, a horse, a pig, and a monk (Erlang isn’t mentioned for some reason). She asks one of her imp minions, the “Big-headed Demon” (Datou Gui, 大头鬼), which one seems like a good choice, and after comically dismissing the first three, she settles on the monk.

The Big-headed Demon eagerly grabs a sack and chopper and, when she asks why, he tells her he is going to cut the monk in half and bring the body to her. But since a dead person does not a good husband make, she decides to kidnap the monk herself.

U) Lady Earth-Raised is similar to the seven Spider Spirits (Zhizhu Jing, 蜘蛛精) from JTTW chapters 72 to 73, and her lofty brothers, the Three Saints, are reminiscent of the Demon Lord of a Hundred Eyes (Baiyan Mojun, 百眼魔君), the spider spirits’ senior from chapter 73.

Her name and at least one of her deceptions is also very similar to a demoness in JTTW chapter 80 (see below).

Chapter 9: Subduing the Spider (Shou Zhizhu, 收蜘蛛)

The demoness disguises herself as a young woman with her lower half buried in the earth (the same trick Lady Earth Flow uses in JTTW chapter 80 (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 4, p. 67) and calls out for help. Tripitaka orders Wukong to investigate, but he refuses because he doesn’t want trouble. However, the monk forces him into it via the headband tightening spell.

She says she was buried there by her husband for doing something wrong, and then asks the monk for help. When Tripitaka tries to pry her free with a monk’s knife (jiedao, 戒刀), she grabs him and returns to her cave.

Sun Wukong spots some spider silk with his fiery eyes and plans to turn into a jiaoming fly (jiaoming chong, 蟭螟虫) [V] and follow it back to her cave. However, the horse says she probably raises hens inside, and a fly would quickly be eaten, so he should transform into a Scops owl (Lao Chi, 老鸱), a bird of prey. That way Wukong can deal with the chickens when he sneaks inside.

He soon finds the spider demoness and orders her to let his master go or die. She replies that if he dares, her brothers, the “Three Saints of Mt. Wo” (Wo Shan Sanshen Langjun, 窝山三圣郎君) (again, a mountain’s name does not stay consistent) will deal with him. [W] Wukong beats her to death with the staff anyways and rescues Tripitaka.

V) The jiaoming fly (jiaoming chong, 蟭/焦螟虫) is an aquatic insect from Daoist literature said to be so small that it can congregate in the eyebrows of a mosquito (Wang, 2012, p. 28 n. 44).

W) The “Three Saints of Mt. Song/Wo” (Song/Wo Shan Sansheng Langjun, 嵩/窝山三圣郎君) are part of a pattern in JTTW in which the pilgrims face a trio of baddies. Examples include the three bogus animal immortals (ch. 46), the three demon kings of Lion-Camel Cave (ch. 74-77), and the three rhino demons (ch. 91-92). The three incarnations of the White Bone Spirit (ch. 27) could also count. This reoccurring number is perhaps meant to mirror Tripitaka’s three disciples.

Chapter 10: Bad News (Bao Xiongxun, 报凶讯)

Luo Tuo, Luo Du, and Luo Hou (罗托，罗独，罗候)—the Three Saints of Mt. Wo, are having a party in celebration of their eldest brother, Luo Tuo’s birthday. They wonder why their sister has not arrived yet, when suddenly, the Big-Headed Demon enters and delivers the bad news.

Furious, the trio swear revenge and set out to capture Tripitaka and kill Wukong. [X]

X) The Saints’ anger over the murder of their spider sister is also similar to the rage of the Demon Lord of a Hundred Eyes over the killing of his seven spider sisters (ch. 73) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, pp. 340-341). All eight are done in by Monkey.

Chapter 11: Subduing the Three Saints (Shou Sansheng, 收三圣)

The pilgrims are passing through a mountain, when Luo Tuo swoops down and grabs Tripitaka but fails to capture Wukong. Monkey informs the rest of the gang about the Three Saints. Erlang suggests that since Wukong is the one who started it, he alone should deal with them.

The whole gang goes after the trio anyways but fails to beat them. Wukong tells Erlang and Sandy to keep watch on the Three Saints so that they do not harm Tripitaka, and flies to the South Sea to seek Guanyin’s help.

Guanyin agrees, but the chapter ends here because the rest of the pages are missing from the original manuscript.

Chapter 12: Ascending the Immortal Pavilion (Dengxian Ge, 登仙阁)

The chapter begins with the head of the pavilion’s local shrine asking an attendant about sacrifices, for the birthday of a certain “Great Immortal” (Daxian, 大仙) is near. He demands a young boy, as well as food and fruits, as gifts.

The shrine attendant goes to inform the families responsible for supplying each of the sacrifices; this year, it is Old Huang’s (Huang Gong, 黄公) turn to give up his only grandson. [Y] He begs them to delay the sacrifices until his family can … sire another grandkid!

In response, the shrine attendants tie him up and start beating him, stating that if the Great Immortal does not get his sacrifice, the whole village will suffer. Unable to withstand the beating, Old Huang yields and agrees to their demand.

Y) This plot is similar to the Great King of Numinous Power (Linggan Dawang, 灵感大王) episode from JTTW chapters 47 to 48. He demands a yearly sacrifice of children from families that shoulder the horrible burden on a rotating basis. This shares shocking similarities with Hindu literature (see section 2.2 here).

Chapter 13: Meeting the Grandfather and Grandson (Yu Gongsun, 遇公孙)

The pilgrims hear the commotions of the sacrificial ceremony, and upon investigating, come across Old Huang, dragging his grandson along and sobbing. After questioning him, Tripitaka decides to go to Ascending Immortal Pavilion himself and talk the Great Immortal out of this whole “human sacrifice” thing.

Chapter 14: Subduing the Great Serpent (Shou Dashe, 收大蛇)

The sacrificial ceremony begins. But the shrine attendants wonder if the Great Immortal has not yet arrived because the young boy hasn’t been offered up. Tripitaka arrives just in time to call out the Great Immortal for demanding human sacrifices.

Enraged, the Great Immortal orders his imps to snatch Tripitaka, but Wukong smashes his way in and demands the release of his master. The Great Immortal dares Wukong to allow the spirit three free strikes; Wukong agrees.

After three hits and no effect, the Great Immortal tries to bash him over the head with a stone incense burner, which only annoys Wukong. [Z] He whips out his staff and kills the Great Immortal in one strike, revealing his true form—a huge serpent. [AA]

The pilgrims continue their journey. Wukong asks Erlang to get their master some water, while he travels on his cloud to get some food from the Immortal Peach Monastery (蟠桃寺). As the two leave, Tripitaka hears the sound of people chopping firewood and goes to investigate.

Z) Monkey is famous for his invulnerability in JTTW. For instance, in chapter 75, Wukong willingly blocks a sword strike with his adamantine head:

Arousing his spirit, the old demon stood firmly with one foot placed in front of the other. He lifted up his scimitar with both hands and brought it down hard on the head of the Great Sage. Our Great Sage, however, jerked his head upward to meet the blow. All they heard was a loud crack, but the skin on the head did not even redden (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 373).

那老魔抖擻威風，丁字步站定，雙手舉刀，望大聖劈頂就砍。這大聖把頭往上一迎，只聞扢扠一聲響，頭皮兒紅也不紅。

AA) A massive, red-scaled python spirit (honglin damang, 紅鳞大蟒) appears in JTTW chapter 67.

Chapter 15: Firewood Crossing (隔柴渡)

Two firewood choppers turn out to be Hanshan and Shide (寒山，拾得), two famous historical monks of Mt. Tiantai, who are also worshiped in folk religion. Tripitaka asks them if there is a temple nearby. They say yes but that it’s on the other side of the river.

There aren’t any boats either, so they use their firewood to create a bridge for Tripitaka. Halfway across, the bridge collapses; he falls into the river, only to be rescued by the local Dragon King, who escorts him to the “Correctness and Broadness Temple” (Fangguang Si, 方广寺), [AB] where the Buddha is secretly staying.

After the monk greets Buddha, an immortal lad brings Tripitaka a message: Devaraja Li (Li Tianwang, 李天王) of the Bisha-men Palace (Pisha Gong, 毗沙宫) is inviting him to a party in celebration of his own birthday, as well as Prince Nezha’s (Nezha Taizi, 哪吒太子) “return to the world/rebirth” (zai chushi, 在出世). Tripitaka agrees and heads for the celestial realm on a white crane.

AB) This may be a reference to the Buddhāvataṃsaka Sūtra (Dafangguang fo huayan jing, 大方广佛华严经; a.k.a. “Flower Garland Sutra,” Huayan jing, 华严经). The Chinese believed that this was the Buddha’s first teaching shortly after achieving enlightenment (Buswell & Lopez, 2014, p. 84). This might then explain why the Buddha is residing in a random temple along the journey.

Chapter 16: Party in the Celestial Realm (Tiangong Hui, 天宫会)

Devaraja Li is organizing the party, sending out invitations for the 500 Arhats (Wubai Luohan, 五百罗汉). The immortal lad reports that all five hundred handkerchiefs (shoupa, 手帕) were given out, save for one—which turned out to be Tripitaka’s, missing because of the whole reincarnation thing. [AC]

Luckily, he soon arrives. Devaraja Li gifts him three cups of immortal wine, and Tripitaka, being a lightweight, becomes totally wasted and is taken into the backrooms of the palace to rest.

AC) Tripitaka was historically venerated as an arhat as early as the Song dynasty (960-1279) (Liu, 2019). For example, he is included in a series of late-12th-century religious paintings focusing on the 500 Arhats. A black-robed Sun Wukong can be seen walking in the clouds behind him (fig. 2) (see the 06-04-23 update here).

Fig. 2 – Lin Tinggui and Zhou Jichang, The Tang Monk Procures the Scriptures (Tangseng qujing, 唐僧取經), no. 77 of 100 scrolls from Images of the 500 Arhats (Wubai Luohan tu, 五百羅漢圖, 1178-1188 CE) (larger version). Hanging scroll, ink and color on silk. Image from Nara kuniritsu hakubutsukan, Tōkyō bunkazai kenkyūjo, 2014, p. 86. Courtesy of Dr. Liu Shufen, a research fellow at the Institute of History and Philology, Academia Sinica. See the 06-04-23 update here for close ups of Monkey.

Chapter 17: Where did the monk go? (Tao Heshang, 讨和尚)

Meanwhile, Wukong and Erlang return, only to find their master missing. They bash on the gate of the Correctness and Broadness Temple to demand his whereabouts; the Buddha replies that Tripitaka is drunk and sleeping in Devaraja Li’s palace, then slams the door shut in their faces.

Erlang asks Wukong to go to the celestial realm and bring their master back. Wukong declines, citing the whole “Havoc in Heaven” business, then asks Erlang to go. He also declines because of the Jade Maiden incident in the past.

Finally, they summon the local Jiedi (揭帝) with a mantra and send the guardian deity to pick up Tripitaka.

Chapter 18: Subduing the Red-faced Demon (Shou Chimian, 收赤面)

Elder Li De (Laofu Li De, 老夫李德) of Mt. Song has an 18-year-old daughter, Jinyu (金玉, “Golden Jade”), who has been charmed by a demon, and none of the exorcisms by Daoist priests seem to work. The pilgrims happen to pass by and stay at his place for the night, so naturally, Tripitaka signs his monkey disciple up to banish the demon.

Wukong hides in her bedroom, ready to ambush the demon. However, when spooked, it spews out fire and forces Wukong to retreat. Elder Li laments that the demon will surely give them even more trouble after this fiasco; in response, Wukong transforms into the man’s daughter and summons the local god of the soil for questioning. The deity reveals the monster’s identity as the “Red-Faced Demon King” (Chimian Guiwang, 赤面鬼王).

A transformed Wukong marches to the demon’s cave and tells him their relationship might not work out now that her father has seen the demon flee, deeming him a weakling. The Red-Faced Demon then reveals his backstory: he used to be a woodcutter until he saw the “Lamp-Lamp Buddha” (Dengdeng Fo, 灯灯佛) meditating on a rock, [AD] with a precious pearl (zhu, 珠) by his side. He stole the pearl and swallowed it, which allowed him to turn into a fireball and take flight.

Wukong cajoles him into giving up the pearl, immediately swallows it, and uses the True Samadhi Fire to eliminate the demon. [AE]

AD) This is a likely reference to Dīpaṃkara (Sk: दीपंकर), the Buddha preceding Śākyamuni. His Chinese name appears in countless sutras as Dengdeng Fo (燃灯佛), or the “Lamp Buddha.” This is appropriate given the magic pearl’s connection to spiritual fire. Also, this implies that the Red-Faced Demon has lived for countless eons if he was alive during the time of the previous Buddha.

Dīpaṃkara is referenced in JTTW chapter 5, and he briefly appears in chapter 98 (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 166; vol. 4, p. 352). In addition, his name is listed first (even above Śākyamuni) in a roster of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas saluted at the end of the novel (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 4, p. 384). Journey to the West calls him Dendeng Gufo (燃灯古佛; a.k.a. Gufo, 古佛, here and here), or the “Ancient Buddha of the Lamp.”

AE) This chapter shares similarities with a number of JTTW episodes. First, Monkey hiding in the daughter’s room and later transforming into her likeness is reminiscent of Sun and Zhu’s first meeting in chapter 18 (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, pp. 374-375). Second, Wukong, once again disguised as a woman, tricks a spirit into spitting up a magic pearl and then swallows it himself in chapter 31 (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, pp. 80-81). And third, the emphasis on a red demon’s command of True Samadhi Fire is similar to Red Boy from chapter 40-42.

Chapter 19: Eight Wheels (Balun Tan, 八轮叹)

The “Holy Mothers of the Eight Wheels” (Balun Shengmu, 八轮圣母) sing their backstory: They were eight sisters—Gold Wheel, Silver Wheel, Copper Wheel, Iron Wheel, Tin Wheel, Wind Wheel, Fire Wheel, and Cart Wheel (Jinlun, Yinlun, Tonglun, Tielun, Xilun, Fenglun, Huolun, Chelun, 金轮, 银轮, 铜轮, 铁轮, 锡轮, 风轮, 火轮, 车轮), who were famous for their might but had remained single for 24,000 years.

As such, they planned to kidnap a husband to share between themselves.

Chapter 20: Subduing the Eight Wheels (Shou Balun, 收八轮)

Tripitaka is very close to his destination, when he is kidnapped by Gold Wheel. A very amusing sequence ensues, where each sister tries to snatch him away for their own wedding but are interrupted by Wukong bashing his way in and threatening to kill all eight of them.

The sisters beg for mercy; Wukong accepts their surrender, and then orders them to turn into eight immortal maidens (Feixian, 飞仙), fly to the Thunderclap Monastery (Leiyin Si, 雷音寺), and notify the Buddha of the pilgrims’ forthcoming arrival.

Chapter 21: Meeting the Great Buddha (Jian Dafo, 见大佛)

The pilgrims greet the Buddha and receive the Three Baskets of scriptures, consisting of sutras, texts and monastic codes. Afterwards, these are taken back to Immortal Peach Temple by the Four Bodhisattvas and Eight Vajrapanis (Ba Jingang, Si Pusa, 八金刚，四菩萨). [AF]

AF) The Eight Vajrapanis are ordered by Buddha to escort the pilgrims and sutras back to China in JTTW chapter 98 (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 4, p. 357). However, the guardians are later directed to land after only half way so that Tripitaka can experience the last of the 81 perils: the sutras are nearly lost in chapter 99 when a giant white turtle carrying the group to the other side of a river gets annoyed and dives into the water (this might be based on a historical event) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 4, pp. 363). Thankfully, the Vajrapanis pick them back up and finish the trip to China in chapter 100 (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 4, pp. 370).

Chapter 22 to 23: Descending with the Buddha’s Decree (Jiang Fozhi, 降佛旨) and Conferring of Titles (Fengci, 封赐)

After the pilgrims descend to the Tang capital on colorful clouds, their Vajrapani escort suddenly remembers that he forgot to ask for the Buddha’s decree. He then flies back to Thunderclap Monastery after telling them to first start reading the scriptures to the masses.

That minor incident aside, the decree soon arrives without problem: Tripitaka is appointed the “Venerable Pindola Arhat” (Bintou Luohan Zunzhe, 宾头罗汉尊者), Wukong the “Great Sage of the Void” (Xukong Dasheng, 虚空大圣), Erlang the “Great Emperor of Miraculous Knowledge” (Lingtong Dadi, 灵通大帝), [AG] while Zhu Bajie and the Deep Sand God are made Buddhas. [AH]

Taizong then welcomes Prince Tripitaka back and gives him the royal title of “The Great Chan Master of the Great Law and True Scriptures” (Dafa Zhenjing Dachan Shi, 大法真经大禅师).

AG) This section of the manuscript contains an out of place passage not mentioned in the summary. It reads: “The Tree-born Prince and Sinful Dragon, Tathagata, and Erlang were each granted the title of Great Emperor of Marvelous Knowledge” (树生太子业龙，如来，灌口二郎各封灵通大帝) (refer to the PDF). This previously unmentioned princely dragon Buddha character is likely a transcription error (Hu, 2017a; 2017b).

AH) This is radically different than JTTW chapter 100. Only Sun Wukong and Tripitaka become Buddhas. Sha is made an arhat, while Zhu is made an altar custodian (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 4, pp. 381-382). Would the play’s ending then suggest that Buddhahood is considered lesser to the heavenly titles given to Monkey and Erlang?

–THE END–

III. Thanks

Jim: I would like to express my utmost thanks to @ryin-silverfish for alerting me to this play, providing the Chinese script, summarizing it, and directing me to an intricate paper about the play’s history. This article would not have been possible without their generous contributions.

Sources:

Buswell, R. E., & Lopez, D. S. (2014). The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism. Princeton University Press.

Elvin, M. (2004). The Retreat of the Elephants: An Environmental History of China. New Haven (Conn.): Yale University Press.

Faxian, & Legge, J. (1965). A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms: Being an Account by the Chinese Monk Fâ-Hien of his Travels in India and Ceylon (A.D. 399-414) in Search of the Buddhist Books of Discipline. New York: Dover Publications. (Original work published 1886)

Hu, S. (2017a, December 26). Chonggu “Nanxi” Xiyouji: Yi Quanzhou Kuileixi Sanzang Qujing Wei Qieru dian [A Re-evaluation of the Southern Story System of The Journey to the West: Based on Quanzhou Puppet Drama Monk Xuanzang on a Pilgrimage for Buddhist Scriptures]. Weixin Gongzhong Pintai. Retrieved from https://www.yidianzixun.com/article/0HzCWYnd.

Hu, S. (2017b). Chonggu “Nanxi” Xiyouji: Yi Quanzhou Kuileixi Sanzang Qujing Wei Qieru dian [A Re-evaluation of the Southern Story System of The Journey to the West: Based on Quanzhou Puppet Drama Monk Xuanzang on a Pilgrimage for Buddhist Scriptures], Fudan Xuebao (Shehui Kexue Ban), 59(6), 65-74.

Jiang, Y. (2005). The Great Ming Code / Da Ming Lu. Vancouver, Wa: University of Washington Press.

Liu, S. (2019). Songdai Xuanzang de shenghua: Tuxiang, wenwu he yiji [The Sanctification of Xuanzang in the Song Dynasty: Images, Artifacts and Remains]. Zhonghua wenshi luncong, 133, 161-219.

Meulenbeld, M. R. E. (2007). Civilized Demons: Ming Thunder Gods from Ritual to Literature (Publication No. 3247802) [Doctoral dissertation, Princeton University]. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global.

Nara kuniritsu hakubutsukan, Tōkyō bunkazai kenkyūjo henshū [Nara University Tōkyō Research Institute for Cultural Properties (Ed.)]. (2014). Daitokuji denrai gohyaku rakan zu [Daitoku Temple’s Tradition of the 500 Arhats Paintings]. Kyōto: Shitau bungaku.

Shi, N., & Luo, G. (2021a). Shuihu Zhuan (Shang, Zhong, Xia) [Tale of the Water Margin (Vols. 1-3)]. Beijing: Renmin Wenxue Chubanshe. (Original work published 1975)

Shi, N, & Luo, G. (2021b). Outlaws of the Marsh (vols. 1-4) (Trans. S. Shapiro). Beijing: Foreign Language Press. (Original work published 1993)

Wang, y. (2004). Sun Wukong De Yuanji Keneng Zai Fujian Baoshan [Sun Wukong’s Origin Could be In Baoshan, Fujian]. Yuncheng Xueyan Bao, 22(3), 30-34.

Wang, P. (2012). The Age of Courtly Writing: Wen Xuan Compiler Xiao Tong (501-531) and His Circle. Netherlands: Brill.

Winder, M. (1990). Vaiḍūrya. Bulletin of Tibetology, 26(1-3), 31-37.

Wivell, C.S. (1994). The Story of How the Monk Tripitaka of the Great Country of T’ang Brought Back the Sūtras. In V. Mair (Ed.), The Columbia Anthology of Traditional Chinese Literature (pp. 1181-1207). New York: Columbia University Press.

Wu, C., & Yu, A. C. (2012). The Journey to the West (Vols. 1-4) (Rev. ed.). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press.

Buddhist Deities Exiled From the Western Heaven in Chinese Vernacular Literature

Jim R. McClanahan Leave a comment

Anyone who has read Journey to the West (Xiyouji, 西遊記, 1592) will know that the Tang monk Tripitaka (Tang Sanzang, 唐三藏; a.k.a. Xuanzang) is said to be an incarnation of Master Golden Cicada (Jinchan zi, 金蟬子), the Buddha’s second disciple. The full picture of his past can be pieced together from verse and character dialogue throughout the narrative. This culminates with the Tathagata‘s explanation in chapter 100:

Because you failed to listen to my exposition of the law and slighted my great teaching, your true spirit was banished to find another incarnation in the Land of the East [i.e. China]. Happily you submitted and, by remaining faithful to our teaching, succeeded in acquiring the true scriptures (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 4, p. 381).

因為汝不聽說法，輕慢我之大教，故貶汝之真靈，轉生東土。今喜皈依，秉我迦持，又乘吾教，取去真經 …

In the course of my research, I’ve come across two other examples of Buddhist deities from Ming-Qing Chinese vernacular literature that are exiled from the Western Heaven. In this article, I would like to highlight these stories, as well as analyze them alongside Master Golden Cicada’s tale to record parallels. It’s important to note that all examples are connected to the Journey to the West story cycle. Finally, I will show that the presented examples share similarities with Greek philosophy.

I wrote this to better understand how the story of Master Golden Cicada’s exile may have come about.

1. Master Golden Cicada

For the record, the fullest account of Tripitaka’s past is described by Sun Wukong in chapter 81:

“You don’t realize that Master was the second disciple of our Buddha Tathagata, and originally he was called Elder Gold Cicada. Because he slighted the Law, he was fated to experience this great ordeal.”

“Elder Brother,” said Eight Rules, “even if Master did slight the Law, he had already been banished back to the Land of the East where he took on human form in the field of slander and the sea of strife. After he made his vow to worship Buddha and seek scriptures in the Western Heaven, he was bound whenever he ran into monster-spirits and he was hung high whenever he met up with demons. Hasn’t he suffered enough? “Why must he endure sickness as well?”

“You wouldn’t know about this,” replied Pilgrim. “Our old master fell asleep while listening to Buddha expounding the Law [fig. 1]. As he slumped to one side, his left foot kicked down one grain of rice. That is why he is fated to suffer three days’ illness after he has arrived at the Region Below.” [1]

Horrified, Eight Rules said, “The way old Hog sprays and splatters things all over when he eats, I wonder how many years of illness I’d have to go through!”

“Brother,” said Pilgrim, “you have no idea either that the Buddha is not that concerned with you and other creatures. But as people say:

Rice stalks planted in noonday sun
Take root as perspiration runs.
Who knows of this food from the soil
Each grain requires most bitter toil?

Master still has one more day to go, but he’ll be better by tomorrow” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 4, p. 82).

你不知道。師父是我佛如來第二個徒弟，原叫做金蟬長老，只因他輕慢佛法，該有這場大難。」八戒道：「哥啊，師父既是輕慢佛法，貶回東土，在是非海內，口舌場中，託化做人身，發願往西天拜佛求經，遇妖精就捆，逢魔頭就吊，受諸苦惱，也夠了，怎麼又叫他害病？」行者道：「你那裡曉得。老師父不曾聽佛講法，打了一個盹，往下一試，左腳屣了一粒米，下界來，該有這三日病。」八戒驚道：「像老豬吃東西潑潑撒撒的，也不知害多少年代病是。」行者道：「兄弟，佛不與你眾生為念，你又不知。人云：『鋤禾日當午，汗滴禾下土。誰知盤中餐，粒粒皆辛苦。』師父只今日一日，明日就好了。」

Fig. 1 – Master Golden Cicada falls asleep during the Buddha’s sermon (larger version). Screenshot from episode one of the 1996 Journey to the West TV show.

2. Miao Jixiang

Miao Jixiang (妙吉祥) is a former oil lamp-turned-humanoid Buddhist disciple who briefly appears in chapter one of Journey to the South (Nanyouji, 南遊記, c. 1570s-1580s). He is exiled from the Western Heaven for using his holy flame to kill a belligerent sage. But Miao escapes underworld punishment thanks to the intervention of the Bodhisattva Guanyin. He is later reborn in China as a number of figures, most famously the popular martial deity Huaguang dadi (華光大帝; variously translated as “Great Emperor of Flowery/Resplendent/Magnificent/Majestic Light”):

That Great King of the Single Flame [Duhuo dawang, 独火大王] … wanted to incinerate Spirit Mountain. Fortunately, the Tathagata foresaw this with his all-seeing eyes, and so he recited a mantra, summoning five hundred dragons that brought forth dew and fog to cover the mountain.

Unable to unleash his fire, this Single-Flame demon became angry, rampaging to the left and right of the temple and hurling insults.

Miao Jixiang [2] offered a word of advice, “You are not the same caliber of wisdom as we Buddhist disciples. You can leave if you want; it makes no difference.”

“If you enrage my heart-mind, I will burn your dog bones to death!” replied the Great King of the Single Flame.

Miao Jixiang laughed, “You can only burn others. You can never burn me. If you can burn me, I will acknowledge you as superior.”

Anger racing through him, the Great King set loose his Fire of the Five Dippers, but Miao Jixiang remained perfectly still.

He laughed, “You monster, how could your fire burn me? I used to be the oil lamp before the Tathagata’s Dharma Hall, burning brilliantly day and night, listening to the sutras, and inquiring about the Dharma. I have accumulated many candle wicks during this time. But one day, Tathagata recited a spell and bestowed onto me a human body. With my appearance, spirit, hearing, and origins all arising from fire, how could you burn me? You monster, if you continue to harass our Spirit Mountain and cause us unease, I will inevitably bring forth my Perfected Fire of Samadhi to burn you monster to death, so as to avoid any future troubles.”

Watching this with his all-seeing eyes, the Tathagata was about to stop Miao Jixiang, but the latter had already unleashed his fire and burned that damnable Single Flame to death [fig. 2].

Furious, the Tathagata summoned heavenly generals to arrest Miao Jixiang, “You beast, how dare you break my precepts?” Tathagata scolded, “Although he is wrong, you and I are Buddhists (chujia zhi ren, 出家之人, lit: “people who have left their families”); we’re supposed to be infinitely merciful. Why did you burn him to death? Such an act is intolerable by the Buddhist Dharma. I shall banish you to the underworld (yinshan, 陰山; lit: “mountain of yin/darkness”) to suffer.”

Miao Jixiang begged for forgiveness.

The Reverend Mother Guanyin came forward from one said to defend him by saying, “Although he is guilty, Miao Jixiang is a disciple of Spirit Mountain. He should not be banished to the underworld. When he was still alive, the Great King of Horse-Ear Mountain approached our Spirit Mountain to pray for a son. Now that his wife is pregnant, why not send Miao Jixiang to be reincarnated as her son? After Miao Jixiang goes through this catastrophe, he shall be allowed to return to Spirit Mountain and serve the Master. Why not do this?”

Nodding, Tathagata was about to send Miao Jixiang away.

“My master, you order me to reincarnate,” Miao Jixiang said in tears, “but if I am deprived of the Divine Way, I am afraid that I will be bullied.”

Sitting atop his treasured throne, Tathagata recited a spell, “I shall now bestow you with the five supernatural powers: the heaven power, with which you can travel freely to heaven; the earth power, with which the earth will crack by itself if you want to get inside; the wind power, with which you are shadowless in the wind; the water power, with which you can travel without any obstacle in water; the fire power, with which you feel ease in the fire.”

Tathagata pointed his dharma finger at Miao Jixiang’s forehead, saying, “I will also bestow you with a heavenly eye, with which you can see all across the three realms.”

Tathagata ordered the Reverend Mother Guanyin to deliver Miao Jixiang to his reincarnation (adapted from pp. 10-11 of this PDF).

那大王 … 即要放火烧灵山。幸如来慧眼一见，便念动咒语，放出五百条逆龙，涌起露雾罩住灵山，此火便不能发。独火鬼见火不发，十分著恼，于寺中左冲右撞，出言不逊，妙吉祥进言曰：「我们佛家弟子，亦不比你见识，你可去也罢。」独火大王曰：「恼得我心一边来，把你这狗骨头亦将来烧死。」妙吉祥笑曰：「你的火只好烧别人，烧得我不成；你若烧得我，便见你高。」大王怒起，就放出五斗火，便烧吉祥，吉祥端然不动。笑曰：「你这妖怪，你那火如何烧得我？我乃如来法堂前一盏油灯，昼夜煌煌，听经问法，灯花堆积，一日如来念咒，咒成人身。我这火之相，火之灵，火之听，火之起，你焉能烧我？你这妖怪，今你若再在整日闹我灵山，不得自在，我不免请出三昧真火，烧死你这妖怪，免致后患。」如来慧眼看见，便叫不可之时，独火鬼已被他烧死在地。如来大怒，喝声叫将妙吉祥拿下，责曰：「你这畜生如何敢破我戒？他虽不是，我你俱出家之人，当大慈大悲终是，为何将他烧死？佛法难容，贬去阴山受罪。」吉祥告饶。观音老母在旁保曰：「妙吉祥虽然有罪，乃灵山弟子，不可贬去阴山。当日马耳山大王在日之时，来我灵山祈嗣。今日那娘娘有孕有身，不如送去投胎，等他大难满日，取回灵山，伏侍师父，何不可也。」如来依言，便欲送去。吉祥流泪告曰：「师父命我投胎，奈我不晓神道，恐后被人欺负。」如来于宝座中，念动咒语，说：「我就赐你五通：你一通天，天中自行；二通地，地赶自裂；三通风，风中无影；四通水，水中无碍；五通火，火里自在。」又用法手一指顶门：「赐你一个天眼挪门，可见三界。」就叫观音老母送去投胎。

Fig. 2 – Miao Jixiang kills the Great King of the Single Flame (larger version). From a modern lianhuanhua comic. Image found here. 

3. The Great Peng

The Complete Vernacular Biography of Yue Fei (Shuo Yue quanzhuan, 說岳全傳, 1684) depicts the Great Peng, the Golden-Winged King of Illumination (Dapeng jinchi mingwang, 大鵬金翅明王), [3] as a hot-tempered avian dharma protector stationed above the Buddha’s head (fig. 3). He is exiled from the Western Heaven for killing a bat-spirit who farts during the Buddha’s sermon, and the bird is later reborn in China as the famed Song-era General Yue Fei (岳飛, 1103-1142):

Let’s talk about the Buddha Tathagata at the Great Thunderclap Monastery in the Western Paradise. One day, he sat on a nine-level lotus throne, and the Four Great Bodhisattvas, the Eight Great Vajra Warriors, the five hundred Arhats, the three thousand Heavenly Kings, nuns and monks, male and female attendants, all of the heavenly sages who protect the Dharma, gathered to listen to his lecture on the Lotus Sutra. His words were like flowers and precious jewels raining from the heavens. But, at that time, a star-spirit, the Maiden Earth Bat, who had been listening to the lecture from beneath the lotus throne, couldn’t bear it any longer and unexpectedly let out a stinky fart.

The Buddha was a great, merciful lord, so he didn’t mind even the slightest bit. But don’t console the Dharma protector above his head, [4] the “Great Peng, the Golden-Winged King of Illumination,” whose eyes shone with golden light and whose back was a scene of auspiciousness. He became angry when he saw the nasty, filthy Maiden Earth Bat, and so he unfurled both his wings and dropped down to kill the spirit by pecking her on the head. The light-point of her soul shot out of the Great Thunderclap Monastery and went to the Lands of the East (China) in the world below to find a mother and reincarnate. She was reborn as a daughter of the Wang clan. She would later marry the Song Prime minister Qin Hui (1091-1155) and come to cruelly kill the righteous (Yue Fei) as a means to get revenge against today’s enemy. We will talk about this later.

Let’s return to the Buddha, who saw what happened with his all-seeing eyes and exclaimed, “Good! Good! It turns out that this is an episode of karma (cause and effect).” Then he called the Great Peng bird to come closer and shouted, “You evil creature! You already took refuge in my teachings. How can you not follow the five precepts by daring to commit such a horrible crime? I don’t need you here; you will descend to the mortal world to pay off your (karmic) debt and wait until you have fulfilled your work. Once that is completed, only then will I allow you to return to the mountain to achieve the right fruit (Buddhist merit).” The Great Peng complied with the decree, flying out of the Great Thunderclap Monastery directly to the Lands of the East to be reincarnated. We will stop here (translated by the author).

且說西方極樂世界大雷音寺我佛如來，一日端坐九品蓮臺，旁列著四大菩薩、八大金剛、五百羅漢、三千偈諦、比丘尼、比丘僧、優婆夷、優婆塞，共諸天護法聖眾，齊聽講說妙法真經。正說得天花亂墜、寶雨繽紛之際，不期有一位星官，乃是女土蝠，偶在蓮臺之下聽講，一時忍不住，撒出一個臭屁來。我佛原是個大慈大悲之主，毫不在意。不道惱了佛頂上頭一位護法神祗，名為大鵬金翅明王，眼射金光，背呈祥瑞，見那女土蝠污穢不潔，不覺大怒，展開雙翅落下來，望著女土蝠頭上，這一嘴就啄死了。那女土蝠一點靈光射出雷音寺，徑往東土認母投胎，在下界王門為女，後來嫁與秦檜為妻，殘害忠良，以報今日之讎。此是後話，按下不提。

且說佛爺將慧眼一觀，口稱：「善哉，善哉！原來有此一段因果。」即喚大鵬鳥近前，喝道：「你這孽畜！既歸我教，怎不皈依五戒，輒敢如此行兇？我這裡用你不著，今將你降落紅塵，償還冤債，直待功成行滿，方許你歸山，再成正果。」大鵬鳥遵了法旨，飛出雷音寺，徑來東土投胎不表。

Fig. 3 – Detail of an altar to the Great Peng, the Golden-Winged King of Illumination (larger version). Full image found here.

4. Analysis

There are four parallels shared between these stories. First, each character is exiled for disrespecting the Buddha. Master Golden Cicada falls asleep during the Tathagata’s sermon. Miao Jixiang kills a belligerent sage on the grounds of the Thunderclap Monastery. And the Great Peng kills the Maiden Earth Bat in the same hallowed place during the Buddha’s lecture. The latter two examples are similar in that both characters are admonished by the Tathagata for breaking the precept against killing. For the former, the Buddha exclaims, “You beast, how dare you break my precepts? … Such an act is intolerable by the Buddhist Dharma” (你這畜生如何敢破我戒？… 佛法難容). And for the latter, he screams, “You evil creature! You already took refuge in my teachings. How can you not follow the five precepts by daring to commit such a horrible crime?” (你這孽畜！既歸我教，怎不皈依五戒，輒敢如此行兇？). Admittedly, these acts make Master Golden Cicada’s sleeping far less serious in comparison.

Second, each is exiled from the Western Heaven in India to be reborn as a hero in China. Master Golden Cicada lives out a number of pious incarnations before his final life as Tripitaka, a learned monk who procures scriptures needed to release untold numbers of orphaned souls from the underworld. Miao Jixiang experiences several adventurous incarnations before his final life as Huaguang dadi, a martial deity who rids the world of evil spirits. And the Great Peng is reborn as Song Dynasty General Yue Fei, a patriot who fights against invading Jurchen forces which threaten the Middle Kingdom.

Third, all are exiled with the understanding that they will return once they have accumulated enough Buddhist merit and/or paid off a karmic debt. This is more implied in Master Golden Cicada/Tripitaka’s case when the Buddha reveals his past transgression and then grants him an elevation in spiritual rank to an enlightened being, thereby allowing him to return to the Western Heaven at the end of his story arc (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 4, p. 381). Whereas with Miao Jixiang, this is openly suggested by Guanyin: “After [he] goes through this catastrophe, he shall be allowed to return to Spirit Mountain and serve the Master. Why not do this?” (等他大难满日，取回灵山，伏侍师父，何不可也。) The Tathagata agrees to this arrangement. As for the Great Peng, the Buddha states,

[Y]ou will descend to the mortal world to pay off your (karmic) debt and wait until you have fulfilled your work. Once that is completed, only then will I allow you to return to the mountain to achieve the right fruit (Buddhist merit).

今將你降落紅塵，償還冤債，直待功成行滿，方許你歸山，再成正果。

And fourth, all are connected to the Journey to the West story cycle. For instance, in chapter one of Journey to the South (c. 1570s-1580s), “Pilgrim Sun” (Sun xingzhe, 孫行者; i.e. Sun Wukong) wins first place in a competition between the gods of the Buddho-Daoist pantheon to see who owns the greatest celestial treasure (see pp. 6-7 of this PDF). And in chapter 17, Monkey fights Miao Jixiang’s reincarnation, Huaguang dadi, because the latter framed the former for the theft of immortal peaches. The Great Sage initially wins the encounter, but he is unexpectantly burned at the last minute, leaving his non-canonical daughter to finish the fight (see pp. 107-110 of this PDF). And the Great Peng originally appears as a demon king named the “Peng of Ten Thousand Cloudy Miles” (Yuncheng wanli peng, 雲程萬里鵬) in chapters 74 to 77 of Journey to the West (1592). At the end of his arc, he is trapped above the Buddha’s head (fig. 4):

Perceiving the Peng’s intentions, Tathagata produced a golden light and, facing the wind, and gave his head (which had once supported the nests of magpies) a shake. The head changed at once into a piece of meat dripping with fresh blood. Stretching out his claws, the monster-spirit drew near and tried to clutch at the piece of meat. Our Father Buddha pointed at him with his finger and immediately the monster-spirit felt such cramps throughout his huge wings that he could not fly away. He was trapped above the Buddha’s head in his true form: the Great Peng, a golden-winged eagle [fig. 4] (based on Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 4, p. 31).

如來情知此意，即閃金光，把那鵲巢貫頂之頭迎風一幌，變做鮮紅的一塊血肉。妖精掄利爪叼他一下。被佛爺把手往上一指，那妖翅膊上就了筋，飛不去，只在佛頂上不能遠遁，現了本相，乃是一個大鵬金翅鵰。

The Great Peng later begrudgingly agrees to submit to Buddhism (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 4, p. 31). Therefore, this explains his lofty position in The Complete Vernacular Biography of Yue Fei (1684).

Fig. 4 – The Great Peng trapped above the Buddha’s head (larger version). An AI upscaled version of a blurry image found randomly online. The original comes from Chen Huiguan’s Newly Illustrated and Complete Journey to the West (Chen Huiguan Xinhui Quanben Xiyouji, 陈惠冠新绘全本西游记, 2001).

5. Similarities to Western Philosophy

McEvilley (2002) comments that the Greek philosopher Empedocles (5th-c. BCE) wrote of gods being exiled for ten thousand years for the crime of murder or lying under oath. The fallen deity was believed to reincarnate into every creature of land, air, and sea, and when their long punishment was over, they were reborn in their last life as a person of high culture, such as royalty, religious leaders, and scholars. They then returned to their former heavenly station upon death (McEvilley, 2002, pp. 106-107). These beliefs mirror the misdeeds (sleeping and murder), exile from heaven, experience of reincarnation, and then eventual return to heaven of Master Golden Cicada, Miao Jixiang, and the Great Peng. These similarities likely point to a broader concept in Greco-Indian philosophy that made its way into Chinese vernacular fiction.

Notes:

1) Tripitaka’s additional punishment points to the supreme importance of rice in an agrarian society like ancient China.

2) Miao Jixiang should not be confused with the Bodhisattva Manjushri, who has the same Chinese name in some older Buddhist literature (Von Glahn, 2004, p. 214).

3) The mingwang (明王, “illumination king”) of the Great Peng’s Buddhist title could also mean “wisdom king,” which refers to spiritual knowledge.

4) My previous article traces the religious motif of a bird (Garuda) hovering above the heads of Buddhist personages to Hindo-Buddhist architecture in ancient India.

Sources:

McEvilley, T. (2002). The Shape of Ancient Thought: Comparative Studies in Greek and Indian Philosophies. New York: Allworth.

Von Glahn, R. (2004). The Sinister Way: The Divine and the Demonic in Chinese Religious Culture. United Kingdom: University of California Press.

Wu, C., & Yu, A. C. (2012). The Journey to the West (Vols. 1-4) (Rev. ed.). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press.

Laozi’s Diamond Cutter Treasure-Weapon from Journey to the West

Jim R. McClanahan 6 Comments

Last updated: 03-14-2024

I’ve previously written several articles that survey a chosen subject from Journey to the West (Xiyouji, 西遊記, 1592; “JTTW” hereafter). These include Monkey’s immortal breath, his names and titles, and his four mighty commanders. Also, there are my articles on the respective appearances of Sun Wukong, Zhu Bajie, and Red Boy. In addition, I’m slowly compiling a comprehensive list of Monkey’s magic powers and skills, but this won’t be ready for some time to come.

Here, I would like to focus on a bangle-like holy treasure belonging to the Daoist high god Laozi (老子). The fillet first appears in chapter six when it is used as a blunt throwing weapon to incapacitate Sun Wukong during his rebellion. It later reappears in chapters 50 to 52 as a mysterious, white, shiny string of pearls used by a buffalo spirit to instantly suck away magic weapons and animals and defeat even destructive elemental attacks, kind of like a personal black hole generator with a built-in pocket dimension. It’s so powerful, in fact, that even the sight of it is enough to make Monkey and a host of other gods flee for their lives.

This article will quote all mentions of the weapon, complete with the original Chinese; explain how it was created; describe the history of terminology that ties the treasure to diamond-pointed tools used by craftsmen west of China to work hard stone like jade; demonstrate that it is a mirrored literary element to Sun Wukong’s headband and Prince Nezha‘s fire wheel; and, finally, explore its influence on three fillet-like throwing weapons from another Chinese vernacular classic.

The overwhelming power of Lord Li’s treasure has stuck with me ever since I first read JTTW nearly 25 years ago. I hope that this article will introduce the subject to a wider audience who may not be aware of it.

1. Introduction in chapter six

The high god of Daoism claims to have used the steel bangle as protection while proselytizing in the west:

He rolled up his sleeve and took down from his left arm an armlet [quanzi, 圈子, lit: “circle”], saying, “This is a weapon made of kun steel [kungang, 錕鋼], brought into existence during my preparation of reverted elixir and fully charged with spiritual energy. It can be made to transform at will; indestructible by fire or water, it can entrap many things. It’s called the diamond cutter [jingang zhuo, 金鋼琢] or the diamond snare [jingang tao, 金鋼套]. The year when I crossed the Hangu Pass, I depended on it a great deal for the conversion of the barbarians to Buddhism, for it was practically my bodyguard night and day (based on Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 186).

捋起衣袖，左膊上取下一個圈子，說道：「這件兵器，乃錕鋼摶煉的，被我將還丹點成，養就一身靈氣，善能變化，水火不侵，又能套諸物。一名『金鋼琢』，又名『金鋼套』。當年過函關，化胡為佛，甚是虧他。早晚最可防身。

He then throws it at Wukong’s head, knocking him off balance:

After saying this, Laozi hurled the cutter [1] down from the Heaven Gate; it went tumbling down into the battlefield at the Flower-Fruit Mountain and landed smack on the Monkey King’s head. The Monkey King was engaged in a bitter struggle with the Seven Sages and was completely unaware of this weapon, which had dropped from the sky and hit him on the crown of his head. No longer able to stand on his feet, he toppled over (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 186).

話畢，自天門上往下一摜，滴流流，徑落花果山營盤裡，可可的著猴王頭上一下。猴王只顧苦戰七聖，卻不知天上墜下這兵器，打中了天靈，立不穩腳，跌了一跤 …

Fig. 1 – Laozi looks lovingly upon his diamond cutter (larger version). A screenshot from the 1986 JTTW TV Show. The cutter here looks like a gold or copper ring, but the novel describes it differently (see below).

2. Appearance in later chapters

The diamond cutter reappears in chapters 50 to 52 as a mysterious, white, shiny string of pearls used by the Great King One-Horned Buffalo (Dujiao si dawang, 獨角兕大王) (fig. 2) to instantly disarm gods and defeat destructive elemental attacks. [2]

Fig. 2 – A modern drawing of Great King One-Horned Buffalo holding the diamond cutter and his spear (larger version). Based on an image found here.

2.1. Chapter 50

Monkey multiplies his iron staff many times over to fight against the buffalo and his army of minions. But the fiend easily sucks away all of the cudgels with the magic weapon:

The old demon king, however, stood still and, laughing with scorn, said, “Monkey, don’t be impertinent! Watch my trick!” He at once took out from his sleeve a white, shiny fillet [liang zhuozhuo bai sensen de quanzi, 亮灼灼白森森的圈子] and tossed it up in the air, crying, “Hit!” [zhao, 著] With a swish, all the iron rods changed back into a single rod, which was then sucked up by the fillet [fig. 3]. The Great Sage Sun, completely empty-handed, had to use his somersault desperately in order to escape with his life (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, p. 372).

老魔王唏唏冷笑道：「那猴不要無禮，看手段。」即忙袖中取出一個亮灼灼白森森的圈子來，望空拋起，叫聲：「著！」唿喇一下，把金箍棒收做一條，套將去了。弄得孫大聖赤手空拳，翻觔斗逃了性命。

Fig. 3 –  The diamond cutter sucking in the iron staff (larger version). A screenshot from the 2011 JTTW TV show. Image found here.

2.2. Chapter 51

After his defeat, Wukong seeks heavenly aid several times in a row. First, Prince Nezha is sent to do battle but fails:

“Change!” he roared, and [his six magic] weapons changed into hundreds and thousands. Like a thundershower and a sleet storm, these weapons rained down on the head of the demon. Not the least bit daunted, the demon king took out with one hand that somber white fillet tossed it into the air, crying, “Hit!” With a loud whoosh, the six weapons were all sucked away by it. In desperation Prince Nezha fled for his life with empty hands, [3] while the demon king turned back in triumph (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 6).

大叫一聲：「變！」一變十，十變百，百變千，千變萬，都是一般兵器，如驟雨冰雹，紛紛密密，望妖魔打將去。那魔王公然不懼，一隻手取出那白森森的圈子來，望空拋起，叫聲：「著！」唿喇的一下，把六般兵器套將下來。慌得那哪吒太子赤手逃生。魔王得勝而回。

Second, the Devaraja Li Jing is sent to distract the buffalo with combat, while a fire god prepares his forces to scorch the spirit, but the plan fails:

The demon fought the devaraja for some time, and in the heat of the battle, he again took out the fillet. When the devaraja saw it, he at once turned his auspicious luminosity around and fled in defeat. On the tall summit the Star of Fiery Virtue quickly gave the command for the various gods of his department to start the fire. It was some fire, all right!

你看那個妖魔與天王正鬥到好處，卻又取出圈子來。天王看見，即撥祥光，敗陣而走。這高峰上火德星君忙傳號令，教眾部火神一齊放火。這一場真個利害 …

[…]

When the demon saw the fire coming, he was not in the least afraid. He tossed the fillet in the air and with a loud whoosh, it sucked away all those fire dragons, fire horses, fire crows, fire rats, fire bows, and fire arrows. Then he turned toward his cave and went back in triumph (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, pp. 8-9).

那妖魔見火來時，全無恐懼。將圈子望空拋起，唿喇一聲，把這火龍、火馬、火鴉、火鼠、火槍、火刀、火弓、火箭，一圈子又套將下去，轉回本洞，得勝收兵。

Third, a water god attempts to drown the monster with the Yellow River but fails:

[T]he Water Lord immediately emptied the content of his white jade chalice toward the inside of the cave. When he saw the water rushing in, the fiend dropped his long lance and took out the fillet, holding it high at the second door. Not only was the water blocked right there, but it reversed its course and gushed back out of the cave. So startled was the Great Sage Sun that he somersaulted immediately into the air and, together with Water Lord, leaped up to the tallest peak (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 11).

這水伯將白玉盂向裡一傾。那妖見是水來，撒了長槍，即忙取出圈子，撐住二門。只見那股水骨都都的只往外泛將出來。慌得孫大聖急縱觔斗，與水伯跳在高峰。

Monkey then requests a boxing match to show that he isn’t useless without his staff. But when the bout comes to a draw, both heavenly and demonic forces charge in to help their respective fighter. Fearing the worst, Wukong creates hair clones to overwhelm the monster, but this strategy fails:

At once they changed into some fifty little monkeys, who swarmed all over the demon—grabbing his legs, tugging at his torso, gouging his eyes, and pulling at his hair. The fiendish creature became so alarmed that he immediately took out his fillet. When the Great Sage and his companions saw that object, they mounted the clouds at once and fled toward the tall summit. Tossing the fillet up into the air, the fiend changed those fifty monkeys back into their true forms and then they were sucked away again with a loud whoosh. After he had gained this victory, the fiend led his troops back to his cave, closed the door, and celebrated (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 13).

即變做三五十個小猴，一擁上前，把那妖纏住，抱腿的抱腿，扯腰的扯腰，抓眼的抓眼，撏毛的撏毛。那怪物慌了，急把圈子拿將出來。大聖與天王等見他弄出圈套，撥轉雲頭，走上高峰逃陣。那妖把圈子往上拋起，唿喇的一聲，把那三五十個毫毛變的小猴，收為本相，套入洞中，得了勝，領兵閉門，賀喜而去。

2.3. Chapter 52

Monkey resorts to stealth, changing into a cricket (cuzhi’er, 促織兒) and sneaking into the monster’s cave in order to learn where the treasure is kept:

After the demon king took off his clothes, at once the fillet—all ghostly white—could be seen. It was attached to his left shoulder like an armlet made of a string of pearls [zhuzhuo tou, 珠鐲頭]. Look at him! Instead of taking the fillet off, he pushed it up a couple of times until it was snugly clamped to his shoulder. Only then did he lie down to sleep (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 18).

只見那魔王寬了衣服，左肐膊上白森森的套著那個圈子，原來像一個連珠鐲頭模樣。你看他更不取下，轉往上抹了兩抹，緊緊的勒在肐膊上，方才睡下。

He changes into a flea (gezao, 虼蚤) and twice bites the spirit, but this plan fails to make the beast take off the bangle (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, pp. 18-19).

Wukong goes on to rescue the stolen holy weapons and animals and magic hairs, before setting the cave on fire:

The Bovine Great King was scared out of his wits; dashing out of his room, he held his fillet up high with both hands. He pushed it toward the fire this way and that way, and it immediately went out. Though the air was filled with flame and smoke, they all subsided after he and his treasure [baobei, 寶貝] had run through the entire cave (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 20).

諕得個兕大王魂不附體，急欠身開了房門，雙手拿著圈子，東推東火滅，西推西火消，滿空中冒煙突火，執著寶貝跑了一遍，四下裡煙火俱熄。

Monkey and the host of gods become foolhardy upon retrieving their weapons and once more challenge the buffalo to a fight. But their holy armaments are again sucked away by the fillet:

Smiling scornfully, the demon calmly took out from his sleeve his treasure and tossed it in the air, crying, “Hit!” With a loud whoosh, the six divine weapons, the fire equipment, the thunderbolts, the scimitar of the devaraja, and the rod of Pilgrim were all snatched away. Once again, the deities and the Great Sage Sun were empty-handed (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 23).

那魔頭巍巍冷笑，袖子中暗暗將寶貝取出，撒手拋起空中，叫聲：「著！」唿喇的一下，把六件神兵、火部等物、雷公㨝、天王刀、行者棒，盡情又都撈去。眾神靈依然赤手，孫大聖仍是空拳。

Having no more ideas, Wukong travels to Vulture Peak in the western continent (i.e. India) to seek the Buddha’s wisdom. The Tathagata in turn sends the 18 arhats armed with “golden cinnabar sand” (jindan sha, 金丹砂) in an attempt to bog the demon down and stop him from moving. But this plan also fails:

When the demon saw that the flying sand was clouding up his vision, he lowered his head and discovered that his feet were already standing in three feet of the stuff. He was so horrified that he tried to jump upward; before he could even stand up properly the sand grew another foot. In desperation, the fiend tried to pull up his legs while taking out his fillet. Throwing it up into the air, he cried, “Hit!” With a loud whoosh, the eighteen grains of golden cinnabar sand were sucked away. The demon then strode back to the cave (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 27).

那妖魔見飛砂迷目，把頭低了一低，足下就有三尺餘深。慌得他將身一縱，跳在浮上一層。未曾立得穩，須臾，又有二尺餘深。那怪急了，拔出腳來，即忙取圈子，往上一撇，叫聲：「著！」唿喇的一下，把十八粒金丹砂又盡套去，拽回步，徑歸本洞。

Monkey later receives a message from the Buddha suggesting that he consult Laozi. Upon traveling to the Tushita Palace in the 33rd Heaven, he learns that the Daoist high god’s holy mount, a green buffalo (qingniu, 青牛), is missing. This prompts the deity to check his collection of holy treasures:

Laozi made a quick inventory; everything was there except the diamond cutter. “This cursed beast stole my diamond cutter!” said Laozi. “So, that’s the treasure!” said Pilgrim. “It was the same snare that hit me that time! [refer back to sec. 1] Now it’s going wild down below, sucking away who knows how many things.”

君急查看時，諸般俱在，止不見了金剛琢。老君道：「這孽畜偷了我金剛琢去了！」行者道：「原來是這件寶貝。當時打著老孫的是他。如今在下界張狂，不知套了我等多少物件。」

[After Wukong describes all of the magic weapons sucked away by the bangle …]

Laozi said, “That diamond cutter of mine is a treasure perfected since the time of my youth, and it was also an instrument with which I converted the barbarians when I passed through the Hangu Pass. Whatever weapons you may have, including fire and water, you can’t touch it. If the demon had stolen my plantain-leaf fan also, then even I would not be able to do anything to him” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 29).

老君道：「我那金剛琢，乃是我過函關化胡之器，自幼煉成之寶。憑你甚麼兵器、水火，俱莫能近他。若偷去我的芭蕉扇兒，連我也不能奈他何矣。」

Lord Li’s closing sentence is eye-opening, for it means that anyone who wields both the diamond cutter and fan would be invincible, even against Laozi. This is surprising since JTTW acknowledges him as the creator of the universe who separated the earth and sky from chaos. [4]

In the end, though, Laozi takes back the diamond cutter and subdues the buffalo spirit without trouble:

Reciting a spell, Laozi fanned the air once with his fan. The fiend threw the fillet at Laozi, who caught it immediately and gave him another fan. All at once the fiend’s strength fled him and his tendons turned numb; he changed back into his original form, which was that of a green buffalo. Blowing a mouthful of divine breath on the diamond snare, Laozi then used it to pierce the nostrils of the fiend. Next, he took off the sash around his waist and fastened one end of it to the cutter while his hand held the other. Thus the custom of leading the buffalo with a ring in its nose was established [fig. 4], a custom in use even now. This is also what we call binlang [賓郎] (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 30). [5]

老君念個咒語，將扇子搧了一下，那怪將圈子丟來，被老君一把接住。又一搧，那怪物力軟筋麻，現了本相，原來是一隻青牛。老君將金鋼琢吹口仙氣，穿了那怪的鼻子，解下勒袍帶，繫於琢上，牽在手中。至今留下個拴牛鼻的拘兒，又名賓郎 …

Fig. 4 – A nose ring through a bull’s nose (larger version). Image found here.

3. Background

3.1. Literary origin

Laozi’s dialogue explains how the diamond cutter was created. While at least two JTTW poems reference the high god’s skill in forging mystical weapons (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 382; vol. 3, p. 375), his own words instead point to alchemical experimentation. As a reminder, in chapter 6, he states: “This is a weapon … brought into existence during my preparation of reverted elixir and fully charged with spiritual energy” (這件兵器，乃錕鋼摶煉的，被我將還丹點成，養就一身靈氣…) (based on Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 186). Later, in chapter 52, he adds: “That diamond cutter of mine is a treasure perfected since the time of my youth” (我那金剛琢，乃是我過函關化胡之器，自幼煉成之寶。) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 29).

The phrase “reverted elixir” (huandan, 還丹) is key to understanding the origins of the treasure-weapon. This refers to a concept in external alchemy where a concoction of toxic elements is purified over successive firings in a crucible to create a drug of immortality (fig. 5). The Book of the Master Who Embraces Simplicity (Baopuzi, 抱樸子, 4th-century CE), for example, describes firing cycle periods of between one and nine times, and each subsequent medicine is said to bestow divine longevity within a respective period of time. The more the substance is fired, the faster the desired effect (Kohn, 1993, pp. 309 and 312-313). The product of the ninth cycle is said to transform into reverted elixir when combined with heated cinnabar and exposed to the sun, and a small dose of the drug is enough to bestow instant divinity:

Place the elixir, which has been cycled nine times, in a reaction vessel and expose it to the sun after the summer solstice. When the container becomes hot, introduce a pound of cinnabar beneath the lid. Even while you are watching, with the full power of the sun shining upon it, the whole content will suddenly glow and sparkle with all the colors of spirit radiance. It will immediately turn into reverted elixir. If you take even a single spoonful, you will straightaway rise to heaven in broad daylight (Kohn, 1993, p. 313).

若取九轉之丹，內神鼎中，夏至之後，爆之鼎熱，內朱兒一斤於蓋下。伏伺之，候日精照之。須臾翕然俱起，煌煌煇煇，神光五色，即化為還丹。取而服之一刀圭，即白日昇天。

The fact that Laozi has been developing the cutter from a young age, as stated above, suggests that it is ultimately a byproduct of excessive, millennia-long elixir firing cycles.

Fig. 5 – An alchemist watches as a young lad tends to the firing vessel (larger version). This is an example from Tang Yin’s (唐寅) Images of Cooking Medicine (Shaoyao tu, 燒葯圖) series. Image found here.

3.2. History

Anthony C. Yu (Wu & Yu, 2012) translates kungang (錕鋼), the substance comprising the diamond cutter, as “red steel” (vol. 1, p. 186). The original Chinese term refers to a legendary, red knife mentioned in Master Lie (Liezi, 列子, c. 4th-century) as coming from Kunwu (錕鋙/昆吾), a distant land. This incredibly hard blade was presented as a royal tribute, along with asbestos cloth, a product of the west:

When King Mu of Zhou made his great expedition against the Rong tribes of the West, they presented him with a knife from Kunwu and a fire-proof cloth. The knife was one chi and zhi [changchi youzhi, 長尺有咫, 22.8 in/57.9 cm] long with a red blade [6] of tempered steel; cutting jade with it was as easy as cutting mud (based on Liezi & Graham, 1960/1990, p.117). [7]

周穆王大征西戎，西戎獻錕鋙之劍，火浣之布。其劍長尺有咫，練鋼赤刃，用之切玉如切泥焉。

The later Ten Islands of the Inner Seas (Hainei shizhou ji, 海內十洲記; a.k.a. Shizhou ji, 十洲記, c. 5th; “Ten Islands” hereafter) associates Kunwu with stones that can be smelted into jade-cutting iron swords. What’s important here is that the rocks are located in the “Western Ocean” (Xihai, 西海), a term commonly associated with the Mediterranean, the Persian Gulf, or the Indian Ocean—i.e. bodies of water and land west of China:

There is a floating island [liuzhou, 流洲] in the middle of the Western Ocean … The island has many mountains and rivers accumulating stones called kunwu [昆吾]. Smelting the stones will turn them into iron. A sword made from this will shine brightly like crystal, and it will cut jade like mud (cf. Laufer, 1915, p. 29).

流洲在西海中 … 上多山川積石，名為昆吾。冶其石成鐵，作劍光明洞照，如水精狀，割玉物如割泥。

But the now lost Record of the Mysterious Center (Xuanzhong ji, 玄中記, c. 5th-century) (as cited here) explicitly associates jade-cutting blades with diamonds from western lands:

The country of Daqin [大秦, i.e. Roman Syria] produces diamonds (jingang [金剛]), termed also ‘jade-cutting swords or knives’ [xiaoyu dao, 削玉刀]. The largest reach a length of over one chi [12.3 in/31.8 cm], the smallest are of the size of a rice or millet grain. Hard stone can be cut by means of it all round, and on examination it turns out that it is the largest of diamonds. This is what the Buddhist priests substitute for the tooth of Buddha (based on Laufer, 1915, p. 30).

大秦國出金剛，一名削玉刀，大者長尺許，小者如稻黍，著環中，可以刻玉。

觀此則金剛有甚大者，番僧以充佛牙是也。

Similar to the Ten Islands, the Memoir of the Four Gentlemen of Liang (Liang sigong ji, 梁四公記, late-7th-century) speaks of an island in the west but adds that the inhabitants are talented lapidarists, or gemstone cutters:

In the west, arriving at the Western Ocean, there is in the sea an island of two hundred square li [62.13 mi/100 km]. On this island is a large forest abundant in trees with precious stones, and inhabited by over ten thousand families. These men show great ability in cleverly working gems, which are named for the country Fulin 拂林 [i.e. Rome] (based on Laufer, 1915, p. 7).

西至西海，海中有島，方二百里。島上有大林，林皆寶樹。中有萬餘家，其人皆巧，能造寶器，所謂拂林國也。

Rustic Talks From the East of Qi (Qidong yeyu, 齊東野語, 13th-century) (as cited here) describes how lapidarists use iron-like diamond-points to polish and carve jade:

The workers in jade polish jade by the persevering application of Ganges river-sand, and carve it by means of a diamond-point drill [jingang zuan, 金剛鑽]. Its shape is like the excrement of rodents [fig. 6 & 7]; it is of very black color, and is at once like stone and like iron (based on Laufer, 1915, p. 31). [8]

玉人攻玉，以恆河之砂，以金剛鑽鏤之，其形如鼠矢，青黑色，如石如鐵。

This brings us back to the kunwu blade. Laufer (1915) rejects the idea that it was an iron knife. Instead, he states that it was an embellishment on the kinds of diamond-pointed tools used by craftsmen west of China to carve hard stones like jade (Laufer, 1915, p. 32).

This ultimately explains the odd name of Laozi’s holy treasure, diamond cutter (jingang zhuo, 金鋼琢)—i.e. a cutter made from diamond. This name was no doubt chosen to infer that the weapon is unimaginably hard, something capable of “ringing the bell” of even the Monkey King.

The use of kungang (錕鋼), along with the name diamond cutter, suggests that the JTTW author-compiler had knowledge of both the ancient red knife and its ties to diamonds. And speaking of the gemstone, I think given the above information, a better translation for kungang would be something like “diamond steel.” This is more fitting than Yu’s (Wu & Yu, 2012) “red steel” (vol. 1, p. 186).

Also, the description of the cutter as a white, shiny string of pearls makes much more sense when its ties to diamonds are taken into account. This brings to mind a bracelet of perhaps milky diamonds instead of a steel ring.

Fig. 6 (left) – A craftsman works a product with a bow-driven diamond-point drill (larger version). A painting from Zhou Kun’s (周鯤) “Village and Market Life Album” (Cunshi shengya hua’ce, 村市生涯畫冊, 18th-century). Image found here. Fig. 7 (right) – An example of the diamond-point of a diamond drill (larger version). Image found here. This recalls the rodent excrement description of diamond-points mentioned in Rustic Talks From the East of Qi (13th-century) describes the 

4. Mirrored objects

The diamond cutter serves as a mirrored literary element to Wukong’s golden headband (jingu, 金箍; a.k.a. jingu, 緊箍, lit: “tight fillet”), which initially appears in chapters eight and 14. Both are used to rein in Monkey’s unruly behavior by way of his head: the first hits him on the crown, and the second clamps around his skull. And the fact that the diamond cutter “can entrap many things” (tao zhu wu, 套諸物) reminds me of the way that the golden fillet constricts (jin, 緊) around Wukong’s head when the correct spell is spoken (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 319). Isn’t this also a kind of entrapment?

Another mirrored candidate is Nezha’s “fire wheel” (huolun’er, 火輪兒) (fig. 8), which numbers among his six magic weapons (liujian shenbing, 六件神兵). In chapter 61, this flaming fillet is placed on the Bull Demon King’s horn (i.e. on his head) to stop his rampaging transformations (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 160). Compare this to the way that the diamond cutter stops Wukong via his head. This at first may seem like a passing similarity until you take into account the many parallels shared by Wukong and the bull spirit. The latter is a demon king nicknamed the “Great Sage,” who wields an iron staff, knows 72 changes, can adopt a titanic form, takes part in a battle of magic transformations, is trapped by a joint effort from heaven, is incapacitated by a circular object on his head, and finally faces the Buddha for punishment. [9] Therefore, I can confidently state that the fire wheel is a mirror of the golden headband and subsequently the diamond cutter. I’ll discuss the importance of these connections below.

The novel has many more mirrored objects and characters. I plan to write an article about this at a later date.

Fig. 8 – Nezha (left) wielding his six magic weapons in his three-headed, six-armed form against Sun Wukong (right) (larger version). The fire wheel can be seen in his upper rightmost hand (i.e. the flaming black circle with white spokes). Print from the original 1592 edition of JTTW.

5. Influence

The relationship between Laozi’s diamond cutter and Nezha’s fire wheel in JTTW may have inspired the latter’s “cosmic ring” (qiankun quan, 乾坤圈) in Investiture of the Gods (Fengshen yanyi, 封神演義, c. 1620, “IOTG” hereafter). Nezha first uses it as a youth in chapter 12 to bludgeon a fierce water-spirit to death:

Standing there naked, Nezha dodged the advancing warrior’s attack and upraised the cosmic ring in his right hand. This treasure was originally bestowed by the Jade Emptiness Palace of Mt. Kunlun to the Perfected Man of the Grand Monad [Taiyi zhenren, 太乙真人] to secure the items of his Golden Light Cave. How could the yaksha withstand the magic weapon as it struck downward on his head? [fig. 9] His brains exploded from the blow, and he fell dead on the shore (cf. Gu, 2000, vol. 1, p. 239).

哪吒正赤身站立，見夜叉來得勇猛，將身躲過，把右手套的乾坤圈望空中一舉。此寶原係崑崙山玉虛宮所賜太乙真人鎮金光洞之物，夜叉那裏經得起，那寶打將下來，正落在夜叉頭上，只打的腦漿迸流，即死於岸上。

He also uses it as a throwing weapon:

After fighting three or four rounds, Nezha simultaneously blocked Yu Hua’s halberd with his spear and took out his cosmic ring from the leopard skin bag. He hit him directly in the arm, breaking tendons and shattering bone (cf. Gu, 2000, vol. 2, p. 671).

哪吒未及三四合，用鎗架住畫戟，豹皮囊內忙取乾坤圈打來，正中余化臂膊，打得筋斷骨折.

See note no. 11 below for more overt examples of throwing.

To sum up, both the diamond cutter and cosmic ring are holy treasures belonging to supreme Daoist deities, are circular and hard enough to serve as blunt throwing weapons, and have the power to entrap (tao, 套) or secure (zhen, 鎮, lit: “press down”) things. It’s also worth noting that the caves associated with these objects have similar names: Great King One-Horned Buffalo lives in Golden Cave (Jindong, 金洞), while the Perfected Man of the Grand Monad lives in the Golden Light Cave (Jinguang dong, 金光洞). [10]

My friend, a devotee and researcher of Nezha, tells me that the cosmic ring is a later development in the Third Prince’s mythos, first appearing in IOTG. And since the ring does not appear in JTTW (ctext), it certainly could have been influenced by the similarities between the diamond cutter and Nezha’s fire wheel.

Also, the diamond cutter likely influenced two other fillet-like throwing weapons in the novel, both of which are destroyed by Nezha’s much harder cosmic ring. One is Mo Liqing’s (魔禮青) “white jade diamond bracelet” (baiyu jingang zhuo, 白玉金剛鐲) from chapter 41. The alternate name for said treasure, jingang zhuo (金剛鐲), sounds exactly the same as Laozi’s diamond cutter, jingang zhuo (金鋼琢). I doubt the homophonous title and pale color are a coincidence.

The second is Wen Liang’s (溫良) “white jade ring” (baiyu huan, 白玉環) [11] Again, the white color is telling.

Fig. 9 – Nezha seconds from killing Li Gen with the cosmic ring (larger version). This is an upscaled version of an image found here.

6. Conclusion

Laozi’s great treasure-weapon, the “diamond cutter” (jingang zhuo, 金鋼琢; a.k.a. “diamond snare,” jingang tao, 金鋼套), first appears in chapter six when he uses the fillet to stop Monkey’s rampage by throwing it from heaven and hitting him on the head. It reappears in chapters 50 to 52 as a mysterious, white, shiny string of pearls used by Great King One-Horned Buffalo, an evil spirit, to suck away magic weapons and animals and defeat even destructive elemental attacks. The treasure gives Sun Wukong and a host of Daoist and Buddhist gods no end of trouble before Laozi retrieves his treasure and submits the monster, his runaway buffalo mount.

Lord Li explains that the treasure is a byproduct of creating “reverted elixir,” or a drug of immortality, and that it is made of “kun steel” (kungang, 錕鋼). The latter is a reference to an extremely hard, jade-cutting iron knife from Chinese folklore said to come from the distant land of Kunwu (錕鋙/昆吾). But this is itself an embellishment on reports of diamond-pointed tools used by craftsmen west of China to work hard stone like jade. The name diamond cutter was, therefore, likely chosen to denote something unimaginably hard, something capable of hurting even Sun Wukong.

The diamond cutter is a mirrored literary element to Sun Wukong’s headband. This is because the treasure and the golden fillet are both circular objects that rein in Monkey’s unruly behavior by way of his head, hitting it and clamping around his skull, respectively. The diamond cutter is also a mirrored element of Prince Nezha’s “fire wheel” (huolun’er, 火輪兒) because the latter stops the rampage of the Bull Demon King by way of his head. This takes place during a battle that closely mirrors Monkey’s early rebellion and defeat.

This connection between the diamond cutter and the fire wheel likely influenced Nezha’s “cosmic ring” (qiankun quan, 乾坤圈) from Investiture of the Gods (Fengshen yanyi, 封神演義, c. 1620). Both treasures belong to supreme Daoist deities, can be used as blunt throwing weapons, have the power to entrap or secure things, and are associated with caves with “gold” (jin, 金) in the name. The diamond cutter also likely influenced two other throwing fillets from the novel, Mo Liqing’s (魔禮青) “white jade diamond bracelet” (baiyu jingang zhuo, 白玉金剛鐲) and Wen Liang’s (溫良) “white jade ring” (baiyu huan, 白玉環). The name of the former closely mirrors that of the jade cutter.

Update: 03-14-24

The full name of the Diamond Sutra (c. 2nd to 4th-century) is the Diamond-Cutter Perfection of Wisdom Sutra (Sk: Vajracchedikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra) (Buswell & Lopez, 2014, p. 953). This interests me because Laozi states in chapter six:

The year when I crossed the Hangu Pass, I depended on it [his diamond-cutter treasure] a great deal for the conversion of the barbarians to Buddhism, for it was practically my bodyguard night and day (based on Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 186).

當年過函關，化胡為佛，甚是虧他。早晚最可防身。

Perhaps the diamond-cutter is meant to be a metaphor for the Diamond Sutra, which he used to convert the people of the West.

Notes:

1) Yu (Wu & Yu, 2012) uses the English words “diamond snare” or just “snare” numerous times whenever Laozi’s weapon is mentioned. However, the corresponding Chinese phrase, jingang tao, 金鋼套), only appears once in the entire novel, while that for “diamond cutter,” jingang zhuo (金鋼琢), appears a total of four times. Therefore, I have made changes to the translation for more accuracy.

2) Jenner (Wu & Jenner, 1993/2001) translates Dujiao si dawang (獨角兕大王), the monster’s name, as “Great King Rhinoceros” (vol. 2, p. 1143). This is because the character si (兕) is associated with rhinos. For instance, Strassberg’s (2002) translation of the Classic of Mountains and Seas (Shanhai jing, 山海經, c. 4th-century to 1st-century BCE) reads:

The Si-Rhinoceros dwell east of Shun’s Tomb and south of the Xiang River. Their form resembles an ox that is blue-black with a single horn” (p. 188).

兕在舜葬東，湘水南，其狀如牛，蒼黑，一角。

But the JTTW spirit is likely an amalgamation of Lord Li’s green/black buffalo (qingniu, 青牛) and the mythical animal. This is because both are dark, bovine-like beasts with a single horn. This association between the two is exemplified by a humorous vintage porcelain statue of Laozi riding a rhino.

3) I have changed all references to Nata to Nezha, a FAR more widely used term for the martial god.

4) Monkey explains in chapter 86 that everyone has a boss, thereby alluding to Laozi’s hallowed past:

Old Lord Li happens to be the patriarch of creation [kaitian pidi zhi zhu, 開天闢地之祖; lit: the “patriarch of splitting heaven and earth (from chaos)], but he still sits to the right of Supreme Purity. The Buddha Tathagata is the honored one who governs the world, and yet he still sits beneath the Great Peng. Kong the Sage is the founder of Confucianism, but he assumes the mere title of Master (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 4, p. 163).

李老君乃開天闢地之祖，尚坐於太清之右；佛如來是治世之尊，還坐於大鵬之下；孔聖人是儒教之尊，亦僅呼為『夫子』。

My thanks goes to Irwen Wong of the Journey to the West Library blog for reminding me of this fact.

5) Yu (Wu & Yu, 2012) points out that binlang (賓郎) is a variant of binlang (檳榔), or betel nut (vol. 3, p. 385 n. 8). One French translator suggests that the name comes from the circular shape shared by betel nut and coconuts, and that nose rings were likely made from the latter (Levy, 1991, as cited in Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 385-386 n. 8).

6) Regarding the red blade (chidao, 赤刃), the Classic of Mountains and Seas (Shanhai jing, 山海經, c. 4th-century to 1st-century BCE) mentions that the peaks of Kunwu have an abundance of copper (chitong, 赤銅, i.e. “red copper”) (Strassberg, 2002, p. 145).

7) I have changed all Wade-Giles to pinyin.

8) The passage from Rustic Talks From the East of Qi (13th-century) goes on to associate diamonds with a strange phenomenon in western lands where birds pass the gemstone in their droppings:

According to legend, high in the mountains of the Western Regions [Xiyu, 西域] where the Huihe live, hawks and falcons would ingest (diamonds). These would then be deposited in the sandy gravel of Hebei Province when they defecate. But I do not know if this is true or not (cf. Laufer, 1915, p. 12).

相傳出西域及回紇高山頂上，鷹隼粘帶食入腹中，遺糞於河北砂磧間。未知然否？

This matches another passage from the aforementioned Memoir of the Four Gentlemen of Liang (late-7th-century). This earlier source provides more information:

In a northwesterly direction from the island is a ravine hollowed out like a bowl, more than a thousand feet deep. They throw flesh into this valley. Birds take it up in their beaks, whereupon they drop the precious stones. The biggest of these have a weight of five catties. There is a saying that this is the treasury of the Devaraja of the Rupadhatu 色界天王 (Laufer, 1915, p. 7).

島西北有坑，盤坳深千餘尺。以肉投之，鳥銜寶出，大者重五斤，彼雲是色界天王之寶藏。

The bird-diamond connection is mentioned in non-Chinese sources as well. This includes The Book of the Wonders of India (Kitāb ‘Aja’ib al-Hind, 953), a collection of “sailor’s tales” by the Persian Shipmaster Buzurg Ibn Shahriyār. The 82nd tale in this collection, “Kashmiri Diamonds,” associates the gemstones with northernmost India. The full tale reads:

Someone who had been to India told me he had heard it said that the purest, the most beautiful, and the most precious between two mountains, where diamonds come from the Kashmir region. There is a valley a fire burns ceaselessly, and day, winter and summer. It is there that the diamonds are. Only low-caste Indians risk themselves in this dangerous country. They gather in bands, and reach the entrance to the valley. They kill lean sheep, and cut them up into bits. Then they fling the pieces one after another into the valley, by means of a mangonel that they set in motion. There are many reasons that prevent their access to their valley. First, there is the ever- burning fire; and, in addition, around the fire, there is an uncountable number of snakes and vipers, so that no man can go there and not perish.

When the meat is thrown, a great number of vultures falls on it and seizes it. If it falls some distance from the fire, they carry it off. They follow the vulture as it flies. Sometimes a diamond falls from the meat that has been carried off. If the vulture comes down in some place to eat it, they go to there and find diamonds. If the meat falls in the fire, it burns. The vulture that wants to seize a piece too near the fire burns likewise. Sometimes also, by chance, a vulture seizes meat in flight, before it reaches the ground.

This is how diamonds are gathered. Most of the people who busy themselves looking for them die from the fire, or from the snakes and vipers. The kings of these countries are very fond of diamonds, and go to great trouble to get them. Those employed in this work are watched carefully, because of the beauty and high price of the stones (Shahriyar & Freeman-Grenville, 1981, p. 75).

9) The Bull Demon King takes the title “Great Sage, Parallel with Heaven” (Pingtian dasheng, 平天大聖) in chapter 4 (compare this to Monkey’s title, the “Great Sage Equaling Heaven“) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, pp. 156-157). The rest of the similarities appear in chapters 60 and 61. He wields his own “cast-iron rod” (huntie gun, 混鐵棍) (compare this to Wukong’s weapon) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, pp. 137 and 147). His skill with the 72 changes is referenced when he takes on Zhu’s appearance (compare this to Monkey’s ability) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 148). The battle of transformations against Sun takes place shortly after he’s overwhelmed by our hero and Zhu in combat (compare this to Wukong’s battle of transformations with Erlang in ch. 6) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, pp. 156-157; vol. 1, pp. 182-183). He takes on his cosmic form, a giant white bull, in a last ditch effort to defeat Monkey (compare this to Wukong’s skill) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 157). He is trapped on all sides by Buddho-Daoist deities (compare this to Monkey’s troubles with heaven in ch. 6) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, pp. 159-160; vol. 1, pp. 185-186). As mentioned above, Nezha uses his fire wheel to stop his rampaging transformations (compare this to Laozi stopping Monkey’s rampage by knocking him over with the diamond cutter in ch. 6) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 160; vol. 1, p. 186). And he is taken to see the Buddha at the end of his story arc (compare this to Wukong’s meeting with the Buddha) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 162).

10) Yu (2012) translates Jindong (金洞, lit: “Golden Cave”) and Jinshan (金山, lit: “Golden Mountain”) as “Golden Helmet Cave” and “Golden Helmet Mountain,” respectively (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, p. 368, for example). I don’t know why the extra word was added.

11) Mo Liqing clashes with Nezha in chapter 41, leading to the destruction of his white jade diamond bracelet:

Before they had fought twenty rounds, Mo Liqing hurled his white jade diamond bracelet. It cast a ray of multi-colored light as it struck him [Huang Tianhua, 黃天化] in the middle of the back. The hit knocked down his golden cap [i.e. he died] and fell from his mount.

Mo Liqing wanted to cut off his head, but before he could, Nezha screamed, “Don’t hurt my Daoist brother!” Riding his wind and fire wheels, the third prince fought to the front of the formation and rescued the body of Huang Tianhua.

Nezha engaged Mo Liqing in combat, their respective spears stabbing out in succession. Their battle saddened heaven and made gloomy the earth [i.e. it was extremely tense]. Mo Liqing hurled the diamond bracelet a second time to hit Nezha. The youth also cast his cosmic ring, but it was made of gold and the diamond bracelet jade. When the two clashed, the diamond bracelet shattered into many pieces (cf. Gu, 2000, vol. 2, p. 807 and 809)

來往未及二十回合，早被魔禮青隨手帶起白玉金剛鐲，一道霞光，打將下來，正中後心。只打得金冠倒撞，跌下騎來。魔禮青方欲取首級，早被哪吒大叫：「不要傷吾道兄！」登開風火輪，殺至陣前，救了黃天化。哪吒大戰魔禮青，雙鎗共發，殺得天愁地暗。魔禮青二起金剛鐲來打哪吒。哪吒也把乾坤圈丟起。乾坤圈是金的，金剛鐲是玉的，金打玉，打得粉碎。

Wen Liang’s white jade ring is destroyed by the Third Prince’s cosmic ring in chapter 64:

Now let’s talk about how Wen Liang cast up his white jade ring to attack Nezha. But he didn’t know that Nezha had the cosmic ring. The youth also cast his own treasure. Wen didn’t know that gold beats jade, and when the two clashed, the white jade ring shattered into many pieces (cf. Gu, 2000, vol, 3, pp. 1315 and 1317).

且說溫良祭起白玉環來打哪吒，不知哪吒也有乾坤圈，也祭起來；不知金打玉，打得紛紛粉碎。

Sources:

Buswell, R. E. , & Lopez, D. S. (2014). The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism. Princeton University Press.

Gu, Z. (2000). Creation of the Gods (Vols. 1-4). Beijing: New World Press.

Kohn, L. (1993). The Taoist Experience: An Anthology. United States: State University of New York Press.

Laufer, B. (1915). The Diamond: A Study in Chinese and Hellenistic Folk-lore. United States: Field Museum of Natural History. Retrieved from https://archive.org/details/diamondstudyinch00lauf/page/n5/mode/2up

Liezi, & Graham, A. C. (1990). The Book of Lieh-tzu: A Classic of Tao. New York: Columbia University Press. (Original work published 1960)

Shahriyar, B., & Freeman-Grenville, G. S. P. (1981). The Book of the Wonders of India: Mainland, Sea and Islands. London: East-West Publications.

Strassberg, R. (2002). A Chinese Bestiary: Strange Creatures from the Guideways Through Mountains and Seas. University of California Press.

Wu, C. & Jenner, W. J. F. (2020). Journey to the West (Vols. 1-4). Beijing: Foreign Languages Press. (Original work published 1993)

Wu, C., & Yu, A. C. (2012). The Journey to the West (Vols. 1-4) (Rev. ed.) Chicago, Ill: University of Chicago Press.