The Monkey King’s “Four Mighty Commanders” (Si Jianjiang, 四健將) (figs. 1 & 2) are minor characters appearing in chapters one, three to six, and 28 of Journey to the West (Xiyouji, 西遊記, 1592). They are presented as two elderly gibbons and two elderly horse-monkeys (i.e. macaques) who serve their monarch as advisors and makeshift tutors on spiritual and military matters. In fact, one of them is responsible for setting Wukong on his path towards immortality. They are later given high military rank and charged with training and governing Wukong’s monkey army. An outside observer may question the commanders’ ability to lead troops in battle since they are defeated in nearly every single skirmish. But it should be remembered that, while technically immortal, they can still be killed and only have access to mere earthly weapons. Yet, they choose to face celestial soldiers who wield divine weapons and have millennia of combat experience. This speaks to their great bravery.
Here, I have gathered all references to these characters that I know of. I’ve also included a section on the possible homophonic origins of their names, as well as a section describing their immortality.
This article was prompted by a question put to me on tumblr. Searching the site for “beng ba” and “ma liu” results in a number of posts with fan art and fiction, so this survey has merit. Hopefully it will benefit fans of the novel and/or those who wish to insert these characters into their fan media.
Note: I have changed some of Yu’s (Wu & Yu, 2012) translations of primate names for more accuracy. Also, any bold text from this point forward is my emphasis.
[The Stone Monkey becomes the king of the primates through a test of bravery: leaping through a waterfall and discovering a long-forgotten immortal’s cave.]
The Handsome Monkey King thus led a flock of gibbons [yuanhou, 猿猴], macaques [mihou, 獼猴], and horse-monkeys [mahou, 馬猴], some of whom were appointed by him as his officers and ministers (based on Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 106).
From among the ranks a long-armed gibbon [tongbei yuanhou, 通背猿猴; lit: “(arms)-through-the back-gibbon”] [1] suddenly leaped forth and cried aloud, “If the Great King is so farsighted, it may well indicate the sprouting of his religious inclination. There are, among the five major divisions of all living creatures, only three species that are not subject to Yama, King of the Underworld.” The Monkey King said, “Do you know who they are?” The monkey said, “They are the Buddhas, the immortals, and the holy sages; these three alone can avoid the Wheel of Transmigration as well as the process of birth and destruction, and live as long as Heaven and Earth, the mountains and the streams.” “Where do they live?” asked the Monkey King. The monkey said, “They do not live beyond the world of the Jambudvipa, for they dwell within ancient caves on immortal mountains.” When the Monkey King heard this, he was filled with delight, saying, “Tomorrow I shall take leave of you all and go down the mountain. Even if I have to wander with the clouds to the comers of the sea or journey to the distant edges of Heaven, I intend to find these three kinds of people. I will learn from them how to be young forever and escape the calamity inflicted by King Yama” (based on Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 107).
[After returning from abroad, the Monkey King wishes to train his children in how to defend themselves with weapons since they had previously been plagued by the Demon King of Havoc.]
As they were speaking, four older monkeys [si ge laohou, 四個老猴] came forward, two horse-monkeys with red buttocks [chikao mahou, 赤尻馬猴] and two long-armed gibbons. Coming to the front, they said, “Great King, to be furnished with sharp-edged weapons is a very simple matter.” “How is it simple?” asked Wukong. The four monkeys replied, “East of our mountain, across two hundred miles of water, is the boundary of the Aolai Country. In that country there is a king who has numberless men and soldiers in his city, and there are bound to be all kinds of gold, silver, copper, and iron works there. If the great king goes there, he can either buy weapons or have them made” (based on Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 131).
[Wukong frets over not having a divine weapon that fits his taste.]
The four elder monkeys came forward and memorialized, “The great king is a divine sage, and therefore it is not fit for him to use an earthly weapon. We do not know, however, whether the great king is able to take a journey through water?” “Since I have known the Way,” said Wukong, “I have the ability of seventy-two transformations. The cloud somersault has unlimited power. I am familiar with the magic of body concealment and the magic of displacement. I can find my way to Heaven or I can enter the Earth. I can walk past the sun and the moon without casting a shadow, and I can penetrate stone and metal without hindrance. Water cannot drown me, nor fire burn me. Is there any place I can’t go to?” “It’s a good thing that the great king possesses such powers,” said the four monkeys, “for the water below this sheet iron bridge of ours flows directly into the Dragon Palace of the Eastern Ocean. If you are willing to go down there, Great King, you will find the old Dragon King, from whom you may request some kind of weapon. Won’t that be to your liking?” Hearing this, Wukong said with delight, “Let me make the trip!” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 133).
The Monkey King made the four old monkeys mighty commanders of his troops by appointing the two horse-monkeys with red buttocks as marshals Ma and Liu [Ma, Liu er yuanshuai, 馬、流二元帥], and the two long-armed gibbon as generals Beng and Ba [Beng, Ba er jiangjun, 崩、芭二將軍]. The four mighty commanders [si jianjiang, 四健將], moreover, were entrusted with all matters concerning fortification, pitching camps, reward, and punishment (based on Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 138).
[The Monkey King becomes sworn brothers with six other animal demon kings.]
One day, the four mighty commanders had been told to prepare a great banquet in their own cave, and the six kings were invited to the feast. They killed cows and slaughtered horses; they sacrificed to Heaven and Earth. The various imps were ordered to dance and sing, and they all drank until they were thoroughly drunk. After sending the six kings off, Wukong also rewarded the leaders great and small with gifts. Reclining in the shade of pine trees near the sheet iron bridge, he fell asleep in a moment. The four mighty commanders led the crowd to form a protective circle around him, not daring to raise their voices (based on Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 139).
[Wukong’s soul is taken to the underworld because he is fated to die at 342 year old. However, he inks out his name, as well as those of all other monkeys, from the ledgers of hell and then fights his way out of the world of darkness.]
While our Monkey King was fighting his way out of the city, he was suddenly caught in a clump of grass and stumbled. Waking up with a start, he realized that it was all a dream. As he was stretching himself, he heard the four mighty commanders and the various monkeys crying with a loud voice, “Great King! How much wine did you imbibe? You’ve slept all night long. Aren’t you awake yet?” “Sleeping is nothing to get excited about,” said Wukong, “but I dreamed that two men came to arrest me, and I didn’t perceive their intention until they brought me to the outskirts of the Region of Darkness. Showing my power, I protested right up to the Palace of Darkness and argued with the Ten Kings. I went through our ledger of births and deaths and crossed out all our names. Those fellows have no hold over us now.” The various monkeys all kowtowed to express their gratitude. From that time onward there were many mountain monkeys who did not grow old, for their names were not registered in the Underworld. When the Handsome Monkey King finished his account of what had happened, the four mighty commanders reported the story to the demon kings of various caves, who all came to tender their congratulations (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 141).
[Monkey is invited to heaven to be the keeper of the heavenly horses. This is a plan to keep his unruly adventures in check.]
He then called the four mighty commanders together for this admonition: “Be diligent in teaching and drilling the young ones. Let me go up to Heaven to take a look and to see whether I can have you all brought up there too to live with me.” The four mighty commanders indicated their obedience (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 144).
[He leaves heaven in rebellion when he learns that his post is the lowest in the celestial bureaucracy.]
ln a moment, he lowered the direction of his cloud and returned to the Flower-Fruit Mountain. The four mighty commanders were seen drilling troops with the Monster Kings of various caves. “Little ones,” this Monkey King cried in a loud voice, “old Monkey has returned!” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 150).
“Make me a banner immediately,” he ordered the four mighty commanders, “and inscribe on it in large letters, ‘The Great Sage, Equal to Heaven.’ Erect a pole to hang it on” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 151).
[He is granted the empty title of “Great Sage Equaling Heaven” and charged with guarding the immortal peach groves. However, he eats most of the ripe fruit, and then he wrecks a long-awaited banquet just because he isn’t invited. He finally flees to earth.]
Lowering the direction of his cloud, he returned to the Flower-Fruit Mountain. There he was greeted by flashing banners and shining spears, for the four mighty commanders and the monster kings of seventy-two caves were engaging in a military exercise. “Little ones,” the Great Sage called out loudly, “I have returned!” The monsters dropped their weapons and knelt down, saying, “Great Sage! What laxity of mind! You left us for so long, and did not even once visit us to see how we were doing.” “It’s not that long!” said the Great Sage. “It’s not that long!” They walked as they talked, and went deep inside the cave dwelling. After sweeping the place clean and preparing a place for him to rest, and after kowtowing and doing homage, the four mighty commanders said, “The Great Sage has been living for over a century in Heaven. May we ask what appointment he actually received?”
“I recall that it’s been but half a year,” said the Great Sage, laughing. “How can you talk of a century?” “One day in Heaven,” said the commanders, “is equal to one year on Earth” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 166).
The various monsters were delighted by these words, and they prepared a banquet of fruits and wine to welcome him. A stone bowl was filled with coconut wine and presented to the Great Sage, who took a mouthful and then exclaimed with a grimace, “It tastes awful! Just awful!” “The Great Sage,” said Beng and Ba, the two commanders, “has grown accustomed to tasting divine wine and food in Heaven. Small wonder that coconut wine now seems hardly delectable. But the proverb says, “Tasty or not, it’s water from home!” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 167).
[Heaven calls up forces to end his hijinks. The first to challenge him are the Nine Luminaries, anthropomorphic deities of the planets, moon, and sun.]
Hastily the little monsters reported inside, “Great Sage, disaster! Disaster! Outside there are nine savage deities who claim that they are sent from the Region Above to subdue the Great Sage.” Our Great Sage was just sharing the Heavenly wine with the four mighty commanders and the monster kings of seventy-two caves. Hearing this announcement, he said in a most nonchalant manner,
“If you have wine today, get drunk today; Mind not the troubles in front of your door!”
Hardly had he finished speaking when still another flock of imps arrived to report, “Father, those nine savage gods have broken down the door, and are about to fight their way in!”
These reckless, witless gods!” said the Great Sage angrily. “They really have no manners! I was not about to quarrel with them. Why are they abusing me to my face?” He gave the order for the One-Horn Demon King to lead the monster kings of seventy-two caves to battle, adding that old Monkey and the four mighty commanders would follow in the rear. The Demon King swiftly led his troops of ogres to go out to fight, but they were ambushed by the Nine Luminaries and pinned down right at the head of the sheet iron bridge (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, pp. 170-171).
[The Monkey King singlehandedly defeats the Nine Luminaries.]
Devaraja Li then ordered the Four Great Devarajas and the Twenty-Eight Constellations to go out together to do battle. Without displaying the slightest panic, the Great Sage also ordered the One-Horn Demon King, the monster kings of seventy-two caves, and the four mighty commanders to range themselves in battle formation in front of the cave (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 171).
Beginning with the battle formation at dawn, they fought until the sun sank down behind the western hills. The One-Horn Demon King and the monster kings of seventy-two caves were all taken captive by the forces of Heaven. Those who escaped were the four mighty commanders and the troop of monkeys, who hid themselves deep inside the Water-Curtain Cave. With his single rod, the Great Sage withstood in midair the Four Great Devarajas, Li the Pagoda Bearer, and Prince Nata, and battled with them for a long time. When he saw that evening was approaching, the Great Sage plucked a handful of hairs, threw them into his mouth, and chewed them to pieces. He spat them out, crying, “Change!” They changed at once into many thousands of Great Sages, each employing a golden-hooped rod! They beat back Prince Nata and defeated the Five Devarajas.
In triumph the Great Sage collected back his hairs and hurried back to his cave. Soon, at the head of the sheet iron bridge, he was met by the four mighty commanders leading the rest of the monkeys. As they kowtowed to receive him they cried three times, sobbing aloud, and then they laughed three times, hee-heeing and ho-hoing. The Great Sage said, “Why do you all laugh and cry when you see me?” “When we fought with the Deva Kings this morning,” said the four mighty commanders, “the monster kings of seventy-two caves and the One-Horn Demon King were all taken captive by the gods. We were the only ones who managed to escape alive, and that is why we cried. Now we see that the Great Sage has returned unharmed and triumphant, and so we laugh as well.”
“Victory and defeat,” said the Great Sage, “are the common experiences of a soldier. The ancient proverb says,
You may kill ten thousand of your enemies, But you will lose three thousand of your allies!
Moreover, those chieftains who have been captured are tigers and leopards, wolves and insects, badgers and foxes, and the like. Not a single member of our own kind has been hurt. Why then should we be disconsolate? Although our adversaries have been beaten back by my magic of body division, they are still encamped at the foot of our mountain. Let us be most vigilant, therefore, in our defense. Have a good meal, rest well, and conserve your energy. When morning comes, watch me perform a great magic and capture some of these generals from Heaven, so that our comrades may be avenged.” The four mighty commanders drank a few bowls of coconut wine with the host of monkeys and went to sleep peacefully. We shall speak no more of them (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, pp. 172-173).
The Immortal Master fought the Great Sage for more than three hundred rounds, but the result still could not be determined. The Immortal Master, therefore, summoned all his magical powers; with a shake, he made his body a hundred thousand feet tall. Holding with both hands the divine lance of three points and two blades like the peaks that cap the Hua Mountain, this green-faced, saber-toothed figure with scarlet hair aimed a violent blow at the head of the Great Sage. But the Great Sage also exerted his magical power and changed himself into a figure having the features and height of Erlang. He wielded a compliant golden-hooped rod that resembled the Heaven-supporting pillar on top of Mount Kunlun to oppose the god Erlang. This vision so terrified the marshals, Ma and Liu, that they could no longer wave the flags, and so appalled the generals, Beng and Ba, that they could use neither scimitar nor sword. On the side of Erlang, the Brothers Kang, Zhang, Yao, Li, Guo Shen, and Zhi Jian gave the order to the plant-headed deities to let loose the falcons and dogs and to advance upon those monkeys in front of the Water-Curtain Cave with mounted arrows and drawn bows. The charge, alas,
Dispersed the four mighty commanders of monkey imps And captured two or three thousand numinous fiends!
Those monkeys dropped their spears and abandoned their armor, forsook their swords, and threw away their lances. They scattered in all directions running, screaming, scuttling up the mountain, or scrambling back to the cave. It was as if a cat at night had stolen upon resting birds: they darted up as stars to fill the sky. The Brothers thus gained a complete victory, of which we shall speak no further (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, pp. 181-182).
[Monkey returns to the Mountain of Flowers and Fruit after being kicked out of the pilgrimage. He discovers that the remainder of his children are plagued by human hunters that eat or force them to perform tricks.]
When the Great Sage heard these words, he became terribly angry. “Who is in charge in the cave now?” he asked. “We still have Ma and Liu, the two marshals,” said the little fiends, “[B]eng and Ba, the two generals, they are in charge.” “Report to them at once,” said the Great Sage, “and say that I’ve returned.” Those little fiends dashed inside the cave and cried, “Father Great Sage has come home!” When Ma, Liu, [B]eng, and Ba heard the report, they rushed out of the door to kowtow and to receive him inside the cave. The Great Sage took a seat in the middle as the various fiends all lined up before him to pay homage. “Father Great Sage,” they said, “we heard recently that you had regained your life so that you could protect the Tang Monk on his journey to the Western Heaven to acquire scriptures. Why are you not heading toward the West? Why do you come back to this mountain?”
“Little ones,” said the Great Sage, “you have no idea that the Tang Monk is wholly ignorant of who is worthy and who is foolish. For his sake, I caught fiends and overcame demons throughout the journey, using all my abilities. Several times I slew a monster, but, accusing me of doing evil and violence, he disowned me as his disciple and banished me back here. He even wrote me a formal letter of banishment as proof that he would never want to use me again.” Clapping their hands and roaring with laughter, the monkeys said, “Lucky! Lucky! What do you want to be a monk for? Come home and you can lead us to have a few years’ fun. Quick! Let’s bring out the coconut wine for the reception of Father.” “Let’s not drink wine just yet,” said the Great Sage. “Let me ask you, how often do those hunters come to our mountain?” “Great Sage,” said Ma and Liu, “there’s no telling of time. They are here every day to make trouble.” The Great Sage asked, “Why aren’t they here today?” Ma and Liu replied, “Just wait and you’ll see them come” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, pp. 31-32).
This Chinese article suggests a naturalistic explanation for these odd-sounding names:
Beng-Ba [崩芭] should be a homophone of “bengba” [蹦巴], that is, bengda [蹦躂], which means that the monkey jumps up and down all day without a moment’s peace. Therefore, it became an alternative name for monkeys. Ma-Liu [馬流] is a homophone for “maliu” [麻溜], which means the monkey moves with speed and agility.
I mentioned in the introduction that the Four Mighty Commanders are technically immortal. This is the result of Wukong inking out the names of all monkeys from the ledgers of hell in chapter three (fig. 2). Wukong explains:
I went through our ledger of births and deaths [shengsi buzi, 生死簿子] and crossed out all our names. Those fellows have no hold over us now.” The various monkeys all kowtowed to express their gratitude. From that time onward there were many mountain monkeys [shanhou, 山猴] who did not grow old, for their names were not registered in the Underworld (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 141).
Their divine longevity is exhibited when they reappear in chapter 28, sometime after Wukong is released from his 600-plus year imprisonment under Five Elements Mountain. And this same chapter also reveals that they are still capable of dying if fatally wounded. The rank and file monkeys lament their fate at the hands of human hunters:
Those of us who were shot by arrows, pierced by spears, or clubbed to death they took away for food to be served with rice. The dead monkeys would be skinned and boned, cooked with sauce and steamed with vinegar, fried with oil, and sauteed with salt (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, p. 31).
Fig. 2 – Monkey striking the names from the ledger (larger version). From the Japanese children’s book Son Goku (1939).
4. Updates
Update: 04-30-26
I forgot to mention that Commanders Beng, Ba, Ma, and Liu appear in folk religion statuary. “Nick” Thng Fu Jie, the serving Monkey King tangki (spirit-medium) at Singapore’s Palace of Treasured Virtue (Baode gong, 寶德宮) commissioned the Sect Arts of Singapore and Malaysia (Xima zongyi, 新马宗艺) idol shop to carve 72 statues in honor of the Great Sage’s 2025 religious festival (16th day of the 2nd lunar month). The commanders appear in idols 12 to 15 (fig. 3-6).
They also appear in this video by “Angela” Hakka Moi, a friend of the blog. She briefly interviews tangki Nick.
Note:
1) This term refers to the belief that the long, agile arms of the gibbon were somehow connected (i.e. tongbi, 通臂), passing through the back (i.e. tongbei, 通背) (Gulik, 1967, p. 92-93).
I was recently contacted by a reader who said they were researching the Monkey King’s various nicknames. I had never thought about this before, so I decided to write an article to help them out. I am indebted to Irwen Wong of the Journey to the West Library blog for helping me with some of the more obscure terms. If you know of others that I missed, please let me know in the comments below or by email (see the “contact” button).
These are names or titles mentioned by the narrative.
Shihou (石猴, “Stone Monkey”) – Monkey’s first name according to chapter one (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 104). This is related to his birth from stone (fig. 1).
Tianchan Shihou (天產石猴, “Heaven-Born Stone Monkey”) – His REAL name as listed in the ledgers of hell in chapter three (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 140).
Xinyuan(心猿, “Mind Monkey/Ape”) – A Buddho-Daoist allegorical term for the disquieted thoughts and emotions that keep man trapped in Saṃsāra. It is used numerous times in chapter titles (e.g. ch. 7) and poems to refer to Monkey (see here for more info).
Jingong (金公, “Lord or Squire of Gold/Metal”) – A term used mainly in poems to refer to Monkey. It is possibly an alternative reading of the component characters making up lead (qian, 鉛), namely jin (金) and gong (公). Lead was an important ingredient in immortal elixirs of external alchemy, and metal/gold (jin, 金) is connected to the earthly branch shen (申), which is associated with monkeys (see no. 9 here) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 83 and p. 532 n. 3).
Taiyi Sanxian (太乙散仙, “Leisurely or Minor Immortal of the Great Monad”) – Monkey’s rank within the hierarchy of cosmic immortals (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 471, for example). It essentially means that he is a divine being without a heavenly post.
Taiyi Jinxian (太乙金仙, “Golden Immortal of the Great Monad”) – A seemingly embellished version of the previous term (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, p. 264, for example). It speaks of a higher rank. [1](See the 07-26-25 update below for more info.)
Lingming Shihou (靈明石猴, “Stone Monkey of Numinous Wisdom”) – The name of his magic species according to the Buddha in chapter 58 (based on Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 115). [2] He is the first of four spiritual primates.
Nanbian Mihou (難辨獼猴, “Indistinguishable Macaques”) – A term referring to both Sun Wukong and the Six-Eared Macaque. [3]
These are names, titles, or insults that are given to or directed at our hero by other characters.
Hou Xingzhe (猴行者, “Monkey Pilgrim”) – Monkey’s original religious name in the 13th-century JTTW. It is given by Tripitaka at the beginning of the journey (Wivell, 1994, p. 1182). The Xingzhe (行者) portion of this name carried over to the 1592 edition. See nos. 12 & 13 below.
Gangjin Tiegu Dasheng (鋼筋鐵骨大聖, “Great Sage Steel Muscles and Iron Bones”) – His divine title in the 13th-century JTTW. It is bestowed by Tang Emperor Taizong at the end of the journey (Wivell, 1994, p. 1207). [4] The Dasheng (大聖) portion of this name carried over to the 1592 edition. See sec. 3, nos. 7 & 8 below.
Sun Wukong (孫悟空, “Monkey Awakened to Emptiness”) – The religious name given to him in chapter one by his first master, the Patriarch Subodhi (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 115). It predates the 1592 JTTW, first appearing as early as the early-Ming zaju play (see here, for example). It’s important to note that the name “Wukong” (悟空) might have been influenced by a Tang-era monk who traveled throughout India just like Xuanzang (on whom Tripitaka is based).
Liu Xiao Ling Tong (六小龄童) – Monkey’s name in the human world.
Pohou (潑猴, “Reckless or Brazen Monkey”) – An insult used throughout JTTW (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 118, for example).
Shangxian (上仙, “High or Exalted Immortal”) – A respectful title used by the Dragon King of the Eastern Ocean in chapter three (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 134).
Huaguo Shan Shuilian Dong Tianchan Yaohou (花果山水簾洞天產妖猴, “Heaven-Born Demon Monkey from the Water-Curtain Cave of the Mountain of Flowers and Fruit”) – An insult used by King Qinguang, a Judge of Hell, in a memorial to the Jade Emperor in chapter three (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 142).
Xiandi(賢弟, “Worthy Little Brother”) – A nickname used by the Bull Demon King (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 156, for example). Monkey is the smallest and therefore the last of seven sworn brothers (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, pp. 223-224).
Yaoxian (妖仙, “Bogus Immortal”) – A category of nigh-immortal beings. He is called this by the Jade Emperor (ch. 4), the Buddha (ch. 7), and the Dragon King of the Eastern Sea in (ch. 14) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, pp. 147-148, 193, and 318).
Bimawen (弼馬溫, “To Assist Horse Temperament”) – A minor post overseeing the celestial horse stables. Monkey is given this position in chapter four by the Jade Emperor. Yu (Wu & Yu, 2012) translates this as “BanHorsePlague” (vol. 1, p. 148, for example). [5] This is sometimes used as an insult (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 354, for example).
Yaohou (妖猴, “Monster or Demon Monkey”) – An insult used numerous times throughout the novel (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 154, for example).
Sun Xingzhe (孫行者, “Pilgrim Sun”) – Monkey’s second religious name. It is given to him in chapter 14 by Tripitaka (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 309). Refer back to no. 1. See also sec. 3, nos. 9 & 10 below.
Xingzhe (行者, “Pilgrim”) – He is more commonly referred to by this name than Sun Xingzhe or Sun Wukong combined. [6]See here to learn about the significance of this title. Refer back to no. 1. Again, see sec. 3, no. 9 & 10 below.
Sun Zhanglao (孫長老, “Elder Sun”) – A respectful title used by people he has helped (Wu & Yu, vol. 2, p. 85, for example).
Dashixiong (大師兄, “Elder Religious Brother”) – A term used by Zhu Bajie and Sha Wujing (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, p. 74, for example).
Houtou (猴頭, “Monkey/Ape Head”) – An insult used by various characters, especially Tripitaka (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, p. 26, for example).
Maolian Heshang (毛臉和尚, “Hairy-Faced Monk”) – A term that describes his features (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 407, for example).
Maolian Lei Gong Zui de Heshang (毛臉雷公嘴的和尚, “Hairy-Faced, Thunder God-Beaked Monk) – A term that compares his elongated simian face to the beak of the bird-like thunder god Lei Gong(Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 351, for example). Variations include Lei Gong Zui Heshang (雷公嘴和尚, “Thunder God-Beaked Monk”) and Lei Gong de Nanzi/Hanzi (雷公嘴的男子/漢子, “Thunder God-Beaked Man”).
Dou Zhansheng Fo (鬥戰勝佛, “Buddha Victorious in Strife or Victorious Fighting Buddha”) – His Buddha title bestowed by the Tathagata at the end of the journey in chapter 100 (fig. 2) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 4, p. 381).
Fig. 2 – A religiously accurate drawing of Monkey as Dou zhansheng fo by NinjaHaku21 (larger version).
3. Self-Given
These are names, titles, or pseudonyms taken by Monkey himself. These do not include the names of the innumerable gods, monsters, or humans that he disguises himself as. They only refer to him personally.
Huaguo Shan Ziyun Dong Bawan Siqian Tongtou Tie’e Mihou Wang (花果山紫雲洞八萬四千銅頭鐵額獼猴王, “Bronze-Headed, Iron-Browed King of the Eighty-Four Thousand Monkeys of the Purple Cloud Grotto on the Mountain of Flowers and Fruit”) – How he introduces himself to Tripitaka in the 13th-century JTTW (Wivell, 1994, p. 1182). The “Monkey King” (Mihou Wang, 獼猴王) portion of this name carried over to the 1592 edition but was represented with different Chinese characters. See nos. 2 & 3 below. This article discusses the term mihou (獼猴).
Meihou Wang (美猴王, “Handsome Monkey King“) – The title that he takes upon ascending the throne in chapter one (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 106).
Hou Wang (猴王, “Monkey King”) – He is more commonly referred to by this name than Meihou wang. [7]
Huaguo Shan Shuilian Dong Dongzhu (花果山水簾洞洞主, “Lord of the Water-Curtain Cave in the Mountain of Flowers and Fruit”) – How he introduces himself in chapter two to a demon king plaguing his people (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 127).
Huaguo Shan Shuilian Dong Tiansheng Shenren (花果山水簾洞天生聖人, “Heaven-Born Sage From the Water-Curtain Cave in the Mountain of Flowers and Fruit”) – How he introduces himself to the Ten Kings of Hell in chapter three (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 140).
Lao Sun (老孫, “Old Sun”) – A term that he uses many, many times throughout the novel. Yu (Wu & Yu, 2012) translates this as “Old Monkey” (vol. 1, p. 128, for example).
Qitian Dasheng (齊天大聖, “Great Sage Equaling Heaven”) – The seditious title that he takes during his rebellion against heaven (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 151). Monkey is worshiped by this name in modern Chinese Folk Religion (fig. 3). Refer back to sec. 2, no. 2.
Dasheng (大聖, “Great Sage”) – He is more commonly referred to by this title than Qitian dasheng. [8] Variations include Dasheng Yeye (大聖爺爺, “[Paternal] Grandpa Great Sage”) and Sun Dasheng (孫大聖, “Great Sage Sun”). Refer back to sec. 2, no. 2.
Zhexing Sun (者行孫, “Grimpil Sun”) – A pseudonym taken in chapter 34 when Monkey secretly escapes imprisonment and then presents himself as his own brother in an attempt to trick demons (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 130). The strange English rendering is Yu’s (Wu & Yu, 2012) way of accounting for the change from Sun Xingzhe (孫行者, “PilgrimSun“) to Zhexing Sun (者行孫, “Grimpil Sun“). Refer back to sec. 2, no. 12. See also no. 10 below.
Xingzhe Sun (行者孫, “Sun Pilgrim”) – A pseudonym taken in chapter 35 when he once again escapes capture and presents himself as a second brother (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 133). This is a reversal of Sun Xingzhe (孫行者, “Pilgrim Sun”). Refer back to sec. 2, no. 12.
Sun Waigong (孫外公, “([Maternal] Grandpa Sun”) – A name that he uses to taunt demons (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 407, for example). It’s a cheeky way of saying, “I’m your elder, so you better submit to me.”
Sun Erguan (孫二官, “Second Master Sun”) – A pseudonym taken in chapter 84 in order to investigate an anti-Buddhist kingdom under the guise of a horse trader. The other pilgrims take similar names (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 4, p. 132).
Fig. 3 – A Great Sage idol from Shengfo Tang (聖佛堂, “Sage Buddha Hall”) in Beigang Township, Yunlin County, Taiwan (larger version). It is one of many Monkey King Temples on the island. Photo by the author.
4. Updates
Update: 10-28-24
Someone on reddit questioned why I didn’t add a title for Monkey as the “Protector of the Peaches” or “Guardian of the Heavenly Peach Garden” (as mentioned by Wikipedia). This is how I responded:
This is what the novel says:
“We perceive,” said the Jade Emperor, “that your life is quite indolent, since you have nothing to do, and we have decided therefore to give you an assignment. You will temporarily take care of the Garden of Immortal Peaches. Be careful and diligent, morning and evening” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 160).
The phrase “care for the Immortal Peach garden” (管蟠桃園) appears four times. But there is no official title for the position.
Update: 07-26-25
In section one, no. 6, I listed the title Taiyi Jinxian (太乙金仙, “Golden Immortal of the Great Monad”). However, this is only part of the term. The full title is Hunyuan yiqi shangfang taiyi jinxian (混元一氣上方太乙金仙), or “Golden Immortal of the Great Monad Atop the Primordial Breath of the Chaotic Origin.” The phrase “Atop the Primordial Breath … ” likely refers to the pristine, original energy of the universe that all Daoists wish to return to. Therefore, I believe this refers to his level of spiritual attainment—think of it in terms of cultivation literature—which is separate from his actual heavenly rank.
Update: 03-21-2026
It dawned on me that Pilgrim Sun (sec. 2, no. 12) and his “brothers,” Grimpil Sun and Sun Pilgrim (sec. 3, nos. 9 & 10), might be intentional references to the tripart monkey gods of religion and theater. For example, one Fujian tradition names the triad as the black-faced “Great Sage Reaching Heaven” (Tongtian dasheng, 通天大聖), the white-faced “Third Son Shuashua” (Shuashua sanlang, 耍耍三郎/爽爽三郎), and the red-faced “Cinnabar Cloud Great Sage” (Danxia dasheng, 丹霞大聖). The first two figures appear as brothers, along side the Great Sage Equaling Heaven and two sisters, in a pair of Yuan-Ming zaju plays (see the 12-20-23 update here.)
Notes:
1) The Jinxian (金仙) of Monkey’s title Taiyi Jinxian (太乙金仙, “Golden Immortal of the Great Monad”) is associated with far more lofty figures. For example, a poem in chapter one refers to the Patriarch Subodhi as the Dajue Jinxian (大覺金仙, “Golden Immortal of Great Awareness”) (see here for more info).
2) I’m placing the name in this category because the Tathagata is stating a fact instead of bestowing it as a proper name.
3) Yu (Wu & Yu, 2012) translates this as the “macaque hard to distinguish” (vol. 4, p. 360), but I think that the original Chinese term is likely referring to both Sun and Six Ears. Their battle across the cosmos is counted in chapter 99 as the 46th of 81 hardships that Tripitaka was fated to endure (Wu &Yu, 2012, vol. 4, p. 360).
4) Wivell (1994) translates the name as “Great Sage of Bronze Muscles and Iron Bones” (p. 1207), but the gang (鋼) of Gangjin tiegu dasheng (鋼筋鐵骨大聖) means “steel.”
5) This references the homophonous term Bimawen (避馬瘟, “avoid the horse plague”), the historical practice of placing monkeys in horse stables to ward off equine sickness (see the 02-26-22 update here).
6) The term Xingzhe (行者, “pilgrim”) appears 4,355 times, while Sun xingzhe and Sun Wukong appear 239 and 127 times, respectively. Xingzhe is used numerous times to refer to other characters, such as Guanyin’s disciple Hui’an (惠岸行者, 6 times; a.k.a. Mucha or Mokṣa, 木叉行者, 9 times), but the vast majority refer to Monkey.
7) The term Hou wang (猴王, “Monkey King”) appears 185 times, while Meihou wang (美猴王) appears 42 times.
8) The term Dasheng (大聖, “Great Sage”) appears 1,273 times, while Qitian dasheng (齊天大聖) appears 103 times. I believe Dasheng is also used to refer to the Buddha a few times, so please keep this in mind.
Fans of Journey to the West (Xiyouji, 西遊記, 1592 CE; “JTTW” hereafter) sometimes debate whether Sun Wukong’s 72 “Multitude of Terrestrial Killers” (Disha shu, 地煞數; a.k.a. “… Earthly Fiends”) and Zhu Bajie’s 36 “Multitude of Heavenly Rectifiers” (Tiangang shu, 天罡數; a.k.a. “… the Heavenly Ladle or Northern Dipper”) [1] are just transformations or actual lists of individual magical skills. For example, in March of 2023, a reddit user claimed in one post that “72 transformations” was a mistranslation for “72 different spells.” And then they asked if there existed a list of the 36 spells. I responded by saying:
There is no official list of the 72 or 36 transformations. This is because they are never mentioned in the novel. Any attempt at making a list is a guesstimate at best or completely made up at worst.
[…]
But I was recently contacted by a different reddit user who linked me to a dynastic source, The Comprehensive Mirror of Successive Divine Immortals (Lidai shenxian tongjian, 歷代神仙通鑑, c. 1700; hereafter The Comprehensive Mirror), [2] which does include respective lists for the “Thirty-Six Methods of the Heavenly Rectifiers” (Tiangang sanshiliu fa, 天罡三十六法) and the “Seventy-Two Arts of the Terrestrial Killers” (Disha qishier shu, 地煞七十二術) (said redditor translates the list of 72 abilities in video game terms here). The skills range from creating earthquakes to resurrecting the dead.
However, there are three reasons why these lists should not be associated with Sun and Zhu: 1) They do not appear in JTTW; 2) They postdate the novel by nearly a century; and 3) The JTTW narrative firmly establishes that the numbers of the 72 Terrestrial Killers and 36 Heavenly rectifiers are symbolic of the many ways that Monkey and Pigsy can change their shape. I will discuss this in more detail in section 1.
But for the sake of posterity, I would like to translate both lists so that anyone interested can see them for themselves. These will appear in sections 2 and 3. The info might serve as good fodder for fanfiction or D&D character development. Having said that, I don’t consider myself a translator or an expert on esoteric Taoist jargon. So, if you know of a better rendering for a given phrase, please let me know in the comments below or by email (see the “contact” button).
Also, I will be archiving the section of The Comprehensive Mirror containing the lists of the 72 and 36 skills. See section 4 below for the PDF link. It was downloaded from Google Books.
The title page of The Comprehensive Mirror (larger version) (PDF p. 6).
First, they are not canonical as they don’t appear in JTTW. I’m sure someone could comb through the novel and find parallels, but this wouldn’t necessarily constitute proof of direct influence. This is because immortals have displayed similar powers in Taoist hagiography since at least Ge Hong‘s Book of the Master Who Embraces Simplicity (Baopuzi, 抱樸子, 4th century CE). For example, just like Sun Wukong, the late-Han alchemist Zuo Ci (左慈) was known for enraging enemies, in this case the warlord Cao Cao (曹操), by using magic clones of himself in hilarious ways to escape trouble (see the 11-24-19 update here for a full translation of his shenanigans). Campany & Ge (2002), especially part II, is a treasure trove of such hagiographic tales.
Second, the lists postdate JTTW by almost a century. Whose to say that the popularity of the novel didn’t influence the creation of said lists? Even The Comprehensive Mirror refers at one point to the skills as the “thirty-six changes and seventy-two transformations” (sanshiliu bian, qishier hua, 三十六變，七十二化) (PDF p. 295). This mimics the metamorphic abilities of Monkey and Zhu discussed below. All one would need to do to create the lists is gather skills from Taoist hagiography and then assign them a place and number among the 72 Terrestrial Killers (Disha, 地煞) or 36 Heavenly Rectifiers (Tiangang, 天罡).
(I should note that the names of these numbered groups are based on malevolent and benevolent stellar deities that appear throughout Chinese culture and literature. See, for instance, the 108 stars of the Water Margin (Shuihu zhuan, 水滸傳, c. 14th century CE) (Meulenbeld, 2019).) [3]
A folk print of the “72 Killer Gods” (Qishier Shashen, 七十二煞神) from the Anne S. Goodrich Collection (larger version). Image found here.
And third, most importantly, JTTW specifically states that Monkey has “seventy-two kinds of transformations” (qishier ban bianhua, 七十二般變化) and Zhu “thirty-six kinds of transformations” (sanshiliu ban bianhua, 三十六般變化). Therefore, the numbers of the 72 Terrestrial Killers and 36 Heavenly rectifiers are symbolic of the many ways that our heroes can change their shape. This is made clear in several places throughout the novel. Here, I will list a few examples.
In chapter 2, the Patriarch Subodhi teaches the 72 changes to Sun Wukong with the expressed purpose of helping him “hide” (duobi, 躲避) from the Three Calamities (sanzai lihai, 三災利害) of cosmic lightning, fire, and wind sent by heaven every 500 respective years to destroy immortals for defying fate and achieving eternal life:
“Very well, then,” said the Patriarch, “what method of hiding would you like to learn? There is the “Multitude of the Heavenly Rectifiers,” which numbers thirty-six transformations, and there is the “Multitude of Terrestrial Killers,” which numbers seventy-two transformations.” Wukong said, “Your pupil is always eager to catch more fishes, so I’ll learn the “Multitude of Terrestrial Killers.” “In that case,” said the Patriarch, “come up here, and I’ll pass on the oral formulas to you.” He then whispered something into his ear, though we do not know what sort of wondrous secrets he spoke of. But this Monkey King was someone who, knowing one thing, could understand a hundred! He immediately learned the oral formulas and, after working at them and practicing them himself, he mastered all seventy-two transformations (based on Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, 122).
In chapter 18, Zhu states, “I have the transformations of the Heavenly Rectifiers” (我有天罡數的變化). [4] And later in chapter 67, he reveals that the 36 changes have their shortcomings:
I, old Hog, after all, am capable of thirty-six kinds of transformation. If you want me to change into something delicate, elegant, and agile, I simply can’t do it. But if it’s a mountain, a tree, a boulder, an earth mound, a scabby elephant, a graded hog, a water buffalo, or a camel, I can change into all these things (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 253).
I have included reference numbers when certain skills are similar or related.
Take note that several of these skills appear in Investiture of the Gods (Fengshen yanyi, 封神演義, c. 1620), a famous vernacular novel containing the mythos of many gods still worshiped today in Chinese folk religion.
Woxuan zaohua (斡旋造化, lit: “mediate good luck”) – Creating good fortune.
Diandao yinyang (顛倒陰陽, lit: “reverse yin and yang”) – Disturbing the natural flow of the cosmos (switching the sun and moon, reversing right and wrong, confusing black and white, etc.).
Yixing huandou (移星換斗, lit: “shift the stars and switch the Big Dipper) – Altering the position of the stars. Perhaps this is a metaphor for changing someone’s fate.
Huitian fanri (迴天返日, lit: “turn around heaven to bring back the sun) – Rewinding the day to raise the setting sun into the sky.
Huanyu hufeng (喚雨呼風, Lit: “call the rain and summon the wind) – Summoning storms (see sec. 3, nos. 5-8 & 28).
Zhenshan handi (振山撼地, lit: “shake mountains and earth”) – Making earthquakes.
Jiawu tengyun (駕霧騰雲) – Flying on the mist and clouds (see sec. 3, no. 12).
Huajiang chenglu (劃江成陸) – Parting water to make new land.
Zongde jinguang (縱地金光, lit: “releasing golden light”) – Transforming into light, thus allowing one to travel thousands of Chinese miles in a single day (see sec. 3, no. 55).
Fanjiang jiaohai (翻江攪海, lit: “overturn rivers and disturb oceans) – Creating turbulent rapids and violent tsunamis.
Zhidi chenggang (指地成鋼) – Transforming earth into steel with just a point of the finger (see no. 23).
Wuxing dadun (五行大遁, lit: “five elements great escape”) – Escaping a place or situation through any of the five Chinese elements (wood, fire, earth, metal, and water) (see no. 32 and sec. 3, nos. 40, 54, & 59).
Liujia jimen (六甲奇門, lit: “Strang Door of the Six Jia Spirits) – A computational divination system used to foretell fate.
Nizhi weilai (逆知未來) – Foreknowledge of the future.
Bianshan yishi (鞭山移石, lit: “whipping mountains and shifting stones”) – A kind of earth bending where one can change the landscape at will (see sec. 3, no. 47).
Qisi huisheng (起死回生) – Bringing the dead back to life.
Feishen tuoji (飛身托跡, lit: “flying body trace”) – Traveling heaven and earth without leaving a trace.
Jiuqi fuqi (九息服炁, lit: “nine breaths air swallowing) – A kind of Taoist “embryonic breathing” thought to bring about immortality.
Daochu yuanyang (導出元陽) – Extracting someone’s primal yang energy (see no. 36).
Xianglong fuhu (降龍伏虎) – Subduing dragons and tigers. Apart from the literal reading, this could also be a metaphor for mastery of yin and yang energy.
Butian yuri (補天浴日) – Mending the heavens and bathing in the sun. Is this perhaps some kind of power of purification?
Tuishan tianhai (推山填海) – Pushing mountains and filling oceans.
Zhishi chengjin (指石成金) – Turning stone into gold with just a point of the finger (see no. 11).
Zhengli wuying (正立無影) – Standing in broad daylight without casting a shadow.
Taihua yixing (胎化易形, lit: “changing form into a fetus”) – Regressing one’s form to a youthful appearance (see sec. 3, no. 43). Could this be a reference to the “spirit embryo” from Taoist internal alchemy?
Daxiao ruyi (大小如意) – Enlarging or shrinking things to meet one’s desires (see sec. 3, no. 16).
Huakai qingke (花開頃刻) – Making flowers bloom and plants grow instantly.
Youshen yuqi (遊神御氣) – Traveling in spirit and riding the wind (see no. 17).
Geyuan dongjian (隔垣洞見) – Seeing through walls and partitions.
Huifeng fanhuo (迴風返火) – Repelling wind and fire (see sec. 3, no. 4).
Zhangwo wulei (掌握五雷, lit: “controlling the five thunders”) – Controlling divine, often wrathful beings to expel evil.
Qianyuan suodi (潛淵縮地, lit: “diving into the abyss and contracting earth”) – Traveling deep within the water and earth unimpeded (see no. 12 and sec. 3, nos. 40, 54, & 59). This likely also refers to immortals contracting the landscape in order to travel quickly or stay out of reach of those pursuing them.
Feisha zoushi (飛砂走石, lit: “flying sand and moving rocks”) – Calling forth a mighty wind (see no. 5 and sec. 3, nos. 5 & 12).
Jiashan chaohai (挾山超海) – Carrying mountains under arm while crossing oceans (see sec. 3, no. 3). This could also just mean the ability to do impossible things.
Sadou chengbing (撒豆成兵) – Transforming scattered beans into an army of soldiers.
Qijin (炁禁, lit: “qi restraint”) – A method to affect reality with one’s internal energy (e.g. heal disease, restrain ghosts or animals, reverse the flow of rivers, etc.).
Dali (大力) – Increasing strength.
Toushi (透石) – Passing through solid rock (see no. 40 & 59 and sec. 2, nos. 12 & 32).
Shengguang (生光) – Producing a splendid light (see sec. 2, no. 9).
Zhangyan (障眼, lit: “Obstruct vision”) – Creating a blind spot in someone or something’s eyesight (see no. 21).
Daoyin (導引) – Taoist breathing and stretching exercises.
Fushi (服食) – Consuming alchemical medicine (see no. 68).
Kaibi (開壁, lit: “open ramparts”) – Walking through walls (see nos. 40 & 54 and sec. 2, nos. 12 & 32).
Mengtou (萌頭) – Sprouting a new head after decapitation (see no. 22).
Dengchao (登抄) – I’m not sure what this is. A few online sources point to this skill increasing the course of something, such as making a fire burn faster and hotter. But someone has also suggested to me that it involves theft. I’m open to other suggestions
Heshui (喝水) – Imbibing supernatural amounts of water.
Woxue (臥雪, lit: “lie in snow”) – Warding off the cold of snow and ice.
Baori (暴日) – Exposing the sun (see no. 11).
Nongwan (弄丸, lit: “manage pellets”) – Skill with projectiles, like pellets and rocks.
Fushui (符水, lit: “talisman water”) – Creating disease-curing talismans meant to be burnt and swallowed with water.
Yiyao (醫藥) – Making medicinal remedies.
Zhishi (知時) – Knowledge of time and the seasons.
Shidi (識地) – Knowledge of the earth and all places.
Pigu (辟穀, lit: “grain law”) – Abstaining from the five grains in order to attain immortality. This may also refer to the common trope of immortals subsisting on wind and dew. [5]
The Saṃyutta Nikāya (Sk: संयुक्त निकाया; Ch: Xiang ying bu, 相應部, c. 250 BCE) notes that Buddhist cultivators develop a host of supernatural powers once they master the four mental qualities (Pali: Iddhipāda). Notice how similar they are to those discussed above:
Multiplying the body
Vanishing and reappearing
Passing through solid objects (walls, ramparts, mountains, etc.)
Diving into the earth like water
Walking on water like earth
Traveling through space
Touching the sun and moon
Hearing all sounds, both human and divine
Knowing the minds of others
Having memories of all of one’s past lives
Knowing the future rebirths (and their causes) of all beings
Liberation from the filth of the world through supreme wisdom (Bodhi, 2000, pp. 1727-1728)
Notes:
1) Anthony C. Yu (Wu & Yu, 2012) translates these as the “Art of the Heavenly Ladle” and the “Art of the Earthly Multitude” (vol. 1, p. 122). I instead follow the translation used by Meulenbeld (2019). In regards to Tiangang (天罡), he explains: “In its exorcist manifestation, the Northern Dipper is known as gang 罡, which I translate here as ‘rectifier’ due to the ritual function it has in righting wrong” (Meulenbeld, p. 7). “Terrestrial Killers” is a direct translation of Disha (地煞).
2) This work is a collection of Taoist hagiographic material from ancient times to the Ming.
3) For religious views on the 72 Terrestrial Killers (Disha, 地煞), see the cited quotes here.
4) Yu (Wu & Yu, 2012) translates this sentence as, “I know as many transformations as the number of stars in the Heavenly Ladle” (vol. 1, p. 376).
Bodhi, B. (2000). The Connected Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Saṃyutta Nikāya; Translated from the Pāli by Bhikkhu Bodhi (Vols. 1-2). Boston: Wisdom Publications.
Campany, R. F., & Ge, H. (2002). To Live as Long as Heaven and Earth: A Translation and Study of Ge Hong’s Traditions of Divine Transcendents. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Meulenbeld, M. (2019). Vernacular “Fiction” and Celestial Script: A Daoist Manual for the Use of Water Margin. Religions, 10(9), 518. MDPI AG. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rel10090518.
Wu, C., & Yu, A. C. (2012). The Journey to the West(Vols. 1-4) (Rev. ed.). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press.
Note: My blog is not monetized, so I am not making any money from this post. My hope is that the PDFs will make this legendary story more accessible to a wider audience. If you enjoyed the digital versions, please, please, please support the official releases.
Last updated: 04-06-2026
I’m happy to host a number of foreign language translations of the noted Chinese classic Journey to the West (Xiyou ji, 西遊記, 1592 CE), as well as a precursor and some later unofficial sequels.
1. The Precursor
The Story of How Tripitaka of the Great Tang Procures the Scriptures (Datang Sanzang qujing shihua, 大唐三藏取經詩話, c. late-13th-century)
I will add more languages to this archive as they become available. Please let me know if you have access to other editions.
1. The Precursor
1.1. The Story of How Tripitaka of the Great Tang Procures the Scriptures (Datang Sanzang qujing shihua, 大唐三藏取經詩話, c. late-13th-century)
A. English
This 17-chapter novelette, which likely served as a prompt for oral storytellers, is the earliest known printed edition of the JTTW story cycle. It involves the adventures of Tripitaka and Sun Wukong’s antecedent, the “Monkey Pilgrim” (Hou xingzhe, 猴行者). The tale is translated by Charles S. Wivell.
The four-volume box set in my collection (larger version).
A.2. Abridged
1) This is a PDF for Monkey (1942/1984) translated by Arthur Waley in 30 chapters (1 to 15, 18 and 19, 22, 37 to 39, 44 to 46, 47 to 49, and 98 to 100). See past book covers here.
2) This is a PDF for The Monkey and the Monk (2006): An Abridgement of The Journey to the West translated by Anthony C. Yu in 31 chapters (1 to 15, 18 and 19, 22 and 23, 44 to 46, 53 to 55, 57 and 58, 84, and 98 to 100)
1) I just learned of “The Fifth Monkey” and their Journey to the West – An Audio Drama Series, which presents a new English translation alongside the original Chinese. They explain:
One reason that led our team to start this audio drama project is to correct some of the mistranslations found in the Yu/Jenner translations. Most of them are very minor and we certainly understand what could have led to those mistakes, but we think it is worth exploring how we can help bring a more accurate presentation of the original text in the English language (source).
2) YouTuber Sondley has recorded himself reading all 100 chapters of the Jenner edition.
B. French
These are PDFs for La Pérégrination vers l’Ouest (Xiyou ji) (1991) translated by André Lévy in 100 chapters. I was told by one French academic that this edition “is one of the best available in Western languages.”
Thank you to arcanananas on Tumbler for volume one, and thank you to jyeet on the Journey to the West discord for volume two.
This is a PDF for Die Reise in den Westen. Ein klassischer chinesischer Roman (2016) translated by Eva Lüdi Kong in 100 chapters. It was awarded the Leipzig Book Fair prize in 2017. This version was converted from an ebook.
These are text PDFs for Nyugati utazás: avagy a majomkirály története (1969/1980) translated by Barnabás Csongor in two volumes. While the work covers the full 100 chapters, I’ve been told that it deletes the poems and occasionally paraphrases long-winded sections of text.
Thank you to Twitter user Jakabfi Károly for locating the files.
[Note 10-19-23: I was asked by the publisher to remove the PDF from the archive. I’m leaving the title here so others will know that an Italian translation exists.]
The Italian text is called Viaggio in occidente (1998/2008). It was translated by Serafino Balduzzi and published in two volumes. It is based on the French edition published in 1991. The work covers all 100 chapters.
F. Polish
This is a PDF for Małpi bunt (1976) translated by Tadeusz Żbikowski. It is a 14 chapter abridgement of the first 20 chapters of the original.
Thank you to Twitter user Friend_Pretend for locating the file.
This is a text PDF for Неприятность в небесах. Из китайской мифологии (1926) translated by Yakov Arakin. It is a poetic retelling of the first seven chapters of the novel.
This is a PDF for ไซอิ๋ว (2004/2010). It appears to be based on a four-volume edition translated by one Mr. Tin (นายติ่น) and published from 1906 to 1909. I believe it covers all 100 chapters.
Thank you again to greencicadarchivist for locating the file.
This is a text PDF for Tây Du Ký translated by Như Sơn, Mai Xuân Hải, and Phương Oanh. The 100 chapters were originally split between 10 volumes and published from 1982 to 1988. The volumes were later transcribed and combined to make a single eBook via an online community in 2013 (see here). I have converted it into a PDF.
3.1. A Supplement to the Journey to the West (Xiyoubu)
A. English
1) This is a PDF for Tower of Myriad Mirrors: A Supplement to Journey to the West (2000) translated by Shuen-fu Lin and Larry J. Schulz. This version was converted from Mobi.
2) This is a PDF for Further Adventures on the Journey to the West – Master of Silent Whistle Studio (2020) translated by Qianchng Li and Robert E. Hegel.
3.2. Later Journey to the West (Hou Xiyouji, 後西遊記, 17th-century)
A. Chinese-English
This 41-chapter book has been translated into English with AI by the Chinese Text Project (Ctext). You can READ IT HERE(turn off your VPN for access). The novel does not yet have an official translation.
See my previous articles on the subject here, here, and here.
Update: 08-17-23
I forgot to mention that I have previously archived two other Chinese classics. The first is Creation of the Gods (Fengshen yanyi, 封神演義, c. 1620; a.k.a. Investiture of the Gods), a sort of prequel to JTTW.
The second is Journey to the South (Nanyouji, 南遊記, c. 1570s-1580s). This is NOT a direct sequel to JTTW. It instead follows the adventures of a martial god from Chinese folk religion. However, Sun Wukong makes a guest appearance in chapters one and seventeen.
This article is based on a question put to me on Tumblr. I decided to post my answer here because it contains information from several previous articles discussing monkeys in Chinese culture and Buddhism. This is obviously important when thinking about Journey to the West (Xiyouji, 西遊記).
Question:
Heya, I was researching SWK’s various sworn brothers because I kept hearing abt this one sworn bro of his called “The Female Demon Monkey King” and obviously with a name like that I was curious abt them. But for some reason I can’t find any info abt them anywhere online, and one Tumblr post said that the Female Monkey King and the Macaque King were the same person? I was wondering if you knew anything abt that and had additional info abt the Female Monkey King?
In short, the Female Monkey King seems to be based on a discrepancy in Anthony C. Yu’s (Wu & Yu, 2012) translation. The original Chinese name, Mihou wang (獼猴王, “Macaque King”), appears three times in the novel, but Yu translates it two different ways. I’ve added the Chinese text for comparison.
At this time, moreover, he entered into fraternal alliance with six other monarchs: the Bull Monster King, the Dragon Monster King, the Garuda Monster King, the Giant Lynx King, the Macaque King, and the Orangutan King, they formed a fraternal order of seven (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, pp. 138-139).
[Sun Wukong] then said to the six brothers, “If little brother is now called the Great Sage, Equal to Heaven, why don’t all of you assume the title of Great Sage also?” “Our worthy brother’s words are right!” shouted the Bull Monster King from their midst, ”I’m going to be called the Great Sage, Parallel with Heaven.” “I shall be called the Great Sage, Covering the Ocean,” said the Dragon Monster King. “I shall be called the Great Sage, United with Heaven,” said the Garuda Monster King. “I shall be called the Great Sage, Mover of Mountains,” said the Giant Lynx King. “I shall be called the Telltale Great Sage,” said the Macaque King. ”And I shall be called the God-Routing Great Sage,” said the Orangutan King (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, pp. 156-157).
Your [Red Boy’s] father, the Bull Monster King, called himself the Great Sage, Parallel with Heaven. He and old Monkey formed a fraternal alliance of seven, and we all made him the big brother. There were also a Dragon Monster King, who called himself the Great Sage, Covering the Ocean, and became the second brother; a Garuda Monster King, who called himself Great Sage, United with Heaven, and became the third brother; a Lion Monster King, who called himself the Great Sage, Mover of Mountains, and became the fourth brother; a Female Monkey King, who called herself the Fair Wind Great Sage and became the fifth member; and a Giant Ape Monster King, who called himself the God-Routing Great Sage and became the sixth brother. Old Monkey, the Great Sage, Equal to Heaven, was rather small in size, and so he was number seven (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, pp. 223-224).
Despite what Yu (Wu & Yu, 2012) translates above, the original Chinese does not include any gendered language referring to the character as a woman. It’s just the exact same name, Mihou wang (獼猴王), used twice before. In addition, the Chinese refers to this character as the “fifth brother” (wuge, 五哥). The W. J. F. Jenner (1993/2020) edition translates the Chinese as such:
The Macaque King, our fifth brother, was the Great Sage Who Travels with the Wind (vol. 2, p. 925).
Some people try to explain away the discrepancy in Yu’s (Wu & Yu, 2012) translation by claiming mihou (獼猴) is associated with female monkeys. But if this was true within the context of Journey to the West, ALL monkeys referred to by this name would be women. This certainly isn’t the case, though, since Liu’er mihou (六耳獼猴, “Six-Eared Macaque“) (fig. 1), Sun Wukong’s doppelganger, is male. In fact, out of 13 mentions of mihou (獼猴) in the novel, over 61% refer directly to Six Ears:
Nanbian mihou (難辨獼猴, “Indistinguishable Macaques,” i.e. Six Ears and Sun Wukong) – 1
Notice, too, that the term is even used once to refer to monkeys as a whole. This takes place in chapter three when King Qinguang (秦廣王) of hell submits a complaint to heaven after Sun Wukong makes all monkeys immortal by striking their names from the book of life and death (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, pp. 142-143).
In addition, the term mi (獼) is used by itself to refer to all monkeys: Miyuan wei qin (獼猿為親, “[H]e called the monkey and gibbon his relatives”).
Dynastic sources indicate that the association of mihou (獼猴) with female monkeys is based on a misunderstanding of the word’s etymological history. For example, the Compendium of Materia Medica (Bencao gangmu, 本草綱目, 1596 CE) states:
The monkey likes to wipe its face as if bathing (mu), so it is called a “bathing (monkey).” Later generations mistook this mu for “mother,” and then mother for mi. The meaning is lost as errors compound.
“Mother monkey” (muhou) is the name of the beast, not the female. “Bathing monkey” (muhou) and “full monkey” (mihou) are changes in dialect. The characters are wrong.
This confusion is based on the non-Chinese origin of the word for macaque. Van Gulik (1967) explains:
The fact that mu occurs in four variants: 母 and 沐 in Chou literature, and mi 米 or 獼 during the Han dynasty and later, proves that this binom is a phonetic rendering of a non-Chinese term (p. 35).
Therefore, mihou (獼猴) is just one of several ways to refer to the primate, either male or female (fig. 2).
It’s important to note that Buddhist literature also uses the term to refer to male monkeys. For instance, story no. 46 in the Collection of Sutras on the Six Paramitas (Liudu jijing, 六度集經, 3rd-century CE; “Collection of Sutras” hereafter) tells how a past life of the Buddha helps a macaque (mihou, 獼猴) regain his kingship after being usurped by his uncle. What’s important is that this tale, the Dasaratha Jataka, is a famous Buddhist retelling of the Hindu epic Ramayana (5th-century BCE). The hero-king Rama is replaced by the Buddha, and the warring monkey king brothers Sugriva and Vali (fig. 3) are replaced by a nephew and his uncle. [1]
The Buddha himself also has a past life as a king of monkeys. One Chinese variant of the Mahakapi Jataka, story no. 56 in the Collection of Sutras, expressly calls him Mihou wang (獼猴王). A second Chinese variant, story no. 12 in the Scripture on the Storehouse of Sundry Treasures (Za baozang jing, 雜寶藏經, mid-5th-century CE), calls him Shan mihou (善獼猴, “Good Macaque”).
Fig. 3 – The famous battle between the monkey king brothers Sugriva and Vali (larger version). Image found here.
4. Conclusion
Journey to the West uses the term Mihou wang (獼猴王) three times to refer to the same character. Yu (Wu & Yu, 2012) translates this twice as “Macaque King” (ch. 3 & 4) but later changes it to “Female Monkey King” (ch. 41). Despite the original Chinese referring to the character as the “fifth brother” (wuge, 五哥), Yu (Wu & Yu, 2012) appears to represent them as a woman based solely on the association of mihou (獼猴) with female monkeys. However, not even Journey to the West follows this association, for out of 13 mentions of the term, over 61% refer directly to Liu’er mihou (六耳獼猴), Sun Wukong’s six-eared doppelganger. In addition, mihou (獼猴) and mi (獼) are even used in the novel to refer to monkeys as a whole.
The term mihou (獼猴) is just one of several transcriptions for a non-Chinese word used in China for millennia to mean “macaque” or “monkey.” Dynastic sources show that the association with female monkeys is a misunderstanding based on changes in dialect, along with differences in transcription. Said changes include muhou (沐猴, “bathing monkey”), muhou (母猴, “mother monkey”), and of course mihou (獼猴). Therefore, the word can be applied to either male or female monkeys.
The last point is exemplified in Buddhist literature. A 3rd-century CE Chinese version of the Dasaratha Jataka, which very briefly describes the Hindu epic Ramayana (5th-century BCE), references the great battle between the monkey king brothers Sugriva and Vali and calls the former Mihou (獼猴). A 3rd-century Chinese version of the Mahakapi Jataka, which tells of the Buddha’s past life as a monkey king, also refers to him as Mihou wang (獼猴王). And a 5th-century variant of the same story refers to the Enlightened One as the Shan mihou (善獼猴), or “Good Macaque.”
5. Updates
Update: 08-09-23
Sun Wukong calls himself the Meihou wang (美猴王, “Handsome Monkey King”) throughout JTTW. While it serves as an example of his ego-driven personality, I can’t help but think that meihou (美猴) is a play on mihou (獼猴). Recall that even the Buddha’s past life as a monkey king is referred to as Mihou wang (獼猴王) in Chinese sources.
Update: 09-27-23
It just dawned on me that Sun Wukong’s precursor, Hou xingzhe (猴行者, the “Monkey Pilgrim”) from the 13th-century JTTW, is also called Mihou wang (獼猴王). Chapter two refers to him as Huaguo shan ziyun dong bawan siqian tongtou tie’e Mihou wang (花果山紫雲洞八萬四千銅頭鐵額獼猴王, the “Bronze-Headed, Iron-Browed King of the Eighty-Four Thousand Monkeys of the Purple Cloud Grotto on the Mountain of Flowers and Fruits”) (Wivell, 1994, p. 1182). This adds to the evidence that mihou refers to monkeys as a whole and not just female macaques. Also, refer back to the suggestion in my 08-09-23 update.
Note:
1) See Mair, 1989, pp. 676-678 for a full English translation.
