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Review: The Second Journey (2024) by Joel Bigman

Jim R. McClanahan Leave a comment

Note: I was not paid for this review.

Format: Ebook ($6.99 USD) and paperback (280 pages; $19.99 to $21.99 USD) [1]
Publisher: Earnshaw Books Ltd.
Release date: December 17th, 2024
Purchase links:

1. Introduction

Over two decades ago I was inspired by Journey to the West (Xiyouji, 西遊記, 1592 CE; “JTTW” hereafter) to begin writing my own Chinese fantasy about an itinerant disciple of Sun Wukong battling monsters across ancient China. However, this all changed when I learned about the Kaifeng Jews, a historical enclave of sinified Israelite descendants who have lived in the Middle Kingdom for nearly a millennium. This convergence of two different cultures immediately captured my imagination, leading to the main character becoming the son of a founding member of the community. He would go on to brave supernatural events and creatures while serving as a soldier under General Yue Fei (1103–1142 CE), [2] eventually becoming a Jewish sage and powerful exorcist later in life. However, the book ultimately didn’t materialize as I came to realize that I was much better at coming up with research-based story ideas than actually writing narratives. Thus, my dreams of a Chinese-Jewish fantasy novel never came to pass.

But fret not, for Joel Bigman has written The Second Journey (2024), a modern sequel to JTTW, which is being touted as “The World’s First Chinese-Jewish Historical Fantasy.” [3] The story is framed as the contents of a lost 7th-century CE scroll discovered inside a buried jar while city planners investigate a watermain leak in modern Xi’an, Shaanxi province, China. A subsequent translation of the Aramaic text reveals a second, unknown journey undertaken by Xuanzang, Sun Wukong, and Zhu Bajie (but not Sha Wujing or the Dragon Horse) five years after their original return. This new quest is initiated by the Bodhisattva Guanyin, who requests that the Tang Monk seek knowledge outside of China for the benefit of the Kaifeng Jews, who have assimilated so much into Chinese culture that they’ve forgotten how to read their Hebrew scriptures. The trio travels past India and into Central Asia, where they procure the services of “Bear” (a.k.a. the “Second Samson“), a supernaturally strong Jew with knowledge of the various routes and personages of Historic Palestine. Together with a mysterious donkey, they travel from town to town looking for a holy man willing to return to China and become the Kaifeng Jewish community’s new teacher, thereby reigniting their religious life. Bear arranges for the pilgrims to meet and stay with several such holy men—allowing them to learn Hebrew and Jewish culture and religious history along the way—but the search for the right candidate is quite difficult.

Cover art by the wonderful Yuyu (与鱼), a freelance illustrator. You can see other examples of their work here.

2. Analysis

2.1. Compare and contrast

How does The Second Journey compare to JTTW? Recall that the original is a fictionalized retelling of the historical monk Xuanzang‘s (玄奘, 602–664 CE) journey to India from 627 to 645 (640 to 654 in the novel) (Buswell & Lopez, 2014, pp. 1015-1016; Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 293; vol. 4, p. 374). The set up for the sequel is also based on actual history. The Jewish community of Kaifeng, Henan Province, China is believed to have been founded around the Northern Song Dynasty (960–1127 CE), [4] and after centuries of unchecked assimilation, the enclave became religiously extinct sometime after the last Rabbi with knowledge of Hebrew died around 1800, [5] during the Qing Dynasty (1644–1911 CE). Joel has simply taken some artistic license by setting these events during the Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE). Also, the novel is full of historical Jewish sages and people that Xuanzang and his companions come to meet and/or learn from over the course of their journey. These include Eliezer ben Hurcanus, Yehoshua ben Hananiah, Akiva ben Joseph, Elisha ben Abuyah, Simeon ben Azzai, Simeon ben Zoma, Honi HaMe’agel, Shimon bar Yochai and his son Eleazar ben Shimon, Hillel the Elder, Rav Nachman bar Yaakov and his wife Lady Yalta, Rav Sheshet, Yohanan ben Zakkai, Shimon ben Lakish, Rabbi Tarfon, Judah ha-Nasi, Rabbi Meir and his wife Bruriah, and others. One of my favorite historical moments happens in “Wine,” when Monkey helps an enraged Lady Yalta attain catharsis by prompting her to smash hundreds of casks in a wine cellar after being slighted by her husband’s house guest (Bigman, 2024, pp. 138-140). Another happens in “Mother,” when Sun smashes a vase at the behest of Xuanzang in order to snap grieving disciples out of their ceaseless prayers, which are keeping ailing Rabbi Judah from dying (Bigman, 2024, pp. 165-167). Inserting our heroes into these Talmudic stories is an ingenious way of making the pilgrims feel that much more real, like they are being pulled out of myth and thrust into the real world.

JTTW is full of enlightened beings, gods, immortals, and demons and ghosts that can fly and wield spells and mystic objects for benign or malevolent purposes. The Second Journey also features magic. I can’t continue without first acknowledging that the historical Jews listed above actually lived centuries before Xuanzang was even born—something that informed readers may have already figured out. This means that the story follows a dreamlike timeline where the group magically flows like water between their present, the early Talmudic period (70–638 CE), and the distant Exodus Period, freely interacting with sages, prophets, patriarchs, and even God himself along the way. [6] Some of these Jewish holy men have mystical adventures of their own, such as in “Orchard” when Rabbi Akiva and others fly on a flaming chariot to the “Orchard of mystical knowledge” in order to discuss spiritual matters with wise men-cum-divine beings, or in “Slow Cart” when Sage Honi, a biblical rain-maker, is transported in his dreams to the past events of JTTW chapter 46, where he takes part in a rain-making competition against a Daoist animal-spirit (Bigman, 2024, pp. 56-62 and 99-104). And of course no JTTW story would be complete without Monkey showing off his magic powers. One of the more inventive uses of his abilities happens in a particular chapter where the titanic, golem-like angel Gabriel produces a giant clay sword from his thigh, and Monkey uses the intense spiritual flames inside his divine body to carburize it into a fine steel blade (Bigman, 2024, pp. 79). You’ll have to read the book to see how the weapon is used.

The original story is set in a world where Buddhism, Daoism, and Confucianism live in harmony with one another. The sequel also features such religious pluralism. In “Kaifeng,” Guanyin explains that she is sending the Tang Monk to the Western lands in order to save the Kaifeng Jews from being completely absorbed by Chinese culture. And in order to accomplish this, Xuanzang must bring foreign knowledge back to the Eastern lands, referring to it as “[s]eeds that may grow into something new” (Bigman, 2024, p. 11). As mentioned above, “Orchard” sees Jewish sages travel to a mystical orchard, where they converse with wise country folk, who are in actuality the Jade Emperor and Laozi (Bigman, 2024, pp. 59-62). This implies that even Jewish holy men can benefit from the knowledge of the East. A third example takes the form of the novel’s two-fold world system, where the Eastern and Western lands are two distinct realms overseen by the Jade Emperor and God, respectively. The reader first learns about this partitioned cosmos in “Oven” when Monkey seeks Guanyin’s aid in order to facilitate a biblical miracle:

In the past, you have received help in battling demons, either from myself, or from other celestial beings. But in this case, even the Jade Emperor cannot help you. These [Western] lands are too far away from our realm. You must ask for help from the emperor in a different heaven, in the Far Western Heaven […] He is Olam-Tzu, World-Master. The westerners call him Ribbono Shel Olam. You’ll have to find your own way to his heaven (Bigman, 2024, p. 36).

JTTW is full of humor, my favorite episode being when Monkey tricks three animal-spirits into drinking “elixir” which is actually the disciples’ stinky urine (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, pp. 286-287). BWAHAHAHA!!! The Second Journey also has its funny moments. In “The Other,” we learn our heroes have melodious snores:

Our friends woke up late the following morning; only Xuanzang woke up before noon. There was a whole chorus of snoring, led by the renowned soloist Pigsy, accompanied by Bear, their Foreign Guide, and our dear Monkey (Bigman, 2024, p. 187).

My absolute favorite comical moment happens in “Karma,” when Sage Sheshet warns Zhu that his over indulgence of Sabbath stew will come back to haunt him. And sure enough, after eating eighteen bowls worth, horrible stomach pains wake him from his afternoon nap. This causes him to worry that he has once again become magically pregnant like in chapter 53 of the original. But instead of relying on magic abortion water this time to end his suffering, his problem is solved by ripping nasty, giant farts (Bigman, 2024, pp. 145 and 148-150).

Beyond cultural and religious differences, the only applicable element that contrasts with JTTW is that Historic Palestine is said to be free of monsters (Bigman, 2024, pp. 46 and 109, for example). Monkey does briefly tangle with some biblical baddies in the sequel, but they are separated from the human world and therefore do not pose an immediate threat to the Tang Monk. This lack of action might be a little depressing for fans of the original, but readers should understand that both books serve different purposes. JTTW is chocked full of spirits that act as both merit-building obstacles and cultivation-facilitating illusions of the mind. These act as metaphors for the journey towards Buddhist enlightenment. However, such concepts aren’t needed in The Second Journey since Joel tells me that the point of the book is to introduce readers to Jewish culture and history via the medium of Xuanzang’s quest to find a teacher. Therefore, our heroes spend the majority of the story learning local beliefs and customs, listening to biblical tales, and acting as casual observers of Jewish religious history as it unfolds during their time travels. Entering the book with this knowledge should make it more enjoyable.

2.2. Suggestions

The book’s version of Xuanzang is an amalgam of his historical and literary counterparts. While this generally meshes well within the more realistic context of Historic Palestine, it does cause a problem in one particular instance. In “Bandits,” the pilgrims are accosted on the road by a group of highwaymen, and after their Daoist immortal-looking leader neutralizes Sun, Zhu, and Bear with a magic net, they choose the Tang Monk and a temporary travel companion as sacrifices to the Hindu goddess Durga. But a mysterious, powerful wind sent from heaven causes them to change their minds. The bandit leader is eventually revealed to be a Jew with a shady past who would go on to become a great holy man (Bigman, 2024, pp. 152-156). The problem is that the attempted sacrifice supposedly happened to the historical Xuanzang in India while sailing down the Ganges River (Huili & Shi, 1995, pp. 76-78). Recall that the historical Sage Honi travels back in time to past events from JTTW in “Slow Cart,” but this happens in his dreams. The episode under discussion is different because a historical event from India—which should have already happened to our composit Xuanzang—has been transposed onto Historic Palestine. It’s so out of place that it took me out of the story at that moment. The same can be said about a Daoist Jew leading a group of Hindu bandits in the Levant. I understand that Joel was trying to manufacture tension here, but he could have come up with an original group of bandits, and that way, Xuanzang could liken the experience to the one he had in India years prior. Or better still, the event could be likened to the Tang Monk’s experience in JTTW chapter 56 when Monkey is kicked out of the group for killing brigands, including beheading the wayward son of a local elderly couple (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, pp. 88-90). Perhaps Sun is put into a similar situation in the sequel where he could easily kill, but he doesn’t, thereby showing his master that he has internalized restraint.

And lastly, beyond fixing some minor issues, [7] the book would benefit from adding a glossary or footnotes to explain the names and significance of the various Jewish personages featured in the narrative. Joel told me that he “didn’t want to make it too ‘educational,’ like lecturing at the reader,” but non-Jews like myself who lack an extensive knowledge of Jewish religious history will no doubt be lost without some kind of guide. Having one would, therefore, make the novel far more accessible and enjoyable to a wider audience. As evidence of this, I actually read the book twice for this review, and I found that I enjoyed it more the second time around after having looked up info about the historical people and events.

3. My rating

I give The Second Journey four and a half out of five stars. The book is well-written, with smooth and oftentimes thought-provoking dialogue. The worldbuilding is very creative and yet still respectful to both Jewish beliefs and Chinese mythos. It’s definitely a great way to introduce someone to Jewish culture and religious history via Journey to the West. I highly recommend it!

Notes:

1) I read the Kindle version for this review. My thanks to Joel for giving me an advanced copy.

2) This was based on Weisz (2006), who shows that the Kaifeng Jews reference Yue Fei’s famous patriotic back tattoo, “Serve the country with utmost loyalty” (Jinzhang baoguo, 盡忠報國), in two of three main stone monuments erected in 1489, 1512, and 1663. The first mention appears in a section of the 1489 stele:

[…]

They received kindness from the Prince,
Lived on the income from the Prince
(They) only exerted in prayers To inform Heaven of their sincerity
Which meant “Boundless loyalty to the country and Prince.” (emphasis added)
May the Great Emperor of the Ming
His virtue surpass that of Yu and Tang
and His Highness that of Yao and Xun (Weisz, 2006, p. 18).

[…]

… 受君之恩食君之祿惟盡禮拜告天之誠報國忠君之意祝頌大明皇上德邁禹湯聖並堯舜 … (White, 1966, p. 38; see also the punctuated version).

The second is in a section of the 1512 stele:

[…]

Look at today.
If those who initiated subjects to study
And “brought glory to one’s parents
And became celebrated”
They had made it.
If those who arranged order among China and foreigners and were loyal to the Prince and benefited the people, they had made it.
Or, those who subdued the enemy and resisted aggression
And where “boundlessly loyal to the country” (emphasis added)
They had made it (Weisz, 2006, p. 26).

[…]

… 今日若進取科目而顯親揚名者有之若布列中外而致君澤民者有之或折衝禦侮而盡忠報國者有 … (White, 1966, p. 53; see also the punctuated version).

3) This is per the book’s blurb:

The World’s first Chinese-Jewish Historical Fantasy.

The Tang Monk Xuanzang along with Monkey and Pigsy famously brought the Buddhist scriptures back to China. Now the trio go on a new adventure to get the Hebrew Scriptures. The strongman Bear joins them as they face new monsters and new challenges, and finally reach a land filled with hundreds of foreign sages, yet only one god. The search for a teacher willing to come back to China is difficult, but a talking donkey helps solve the problem.

A fresh parable linking the Chinese classic story with the worlds of Western Asia and Roman Palestine, The Second Journey brings together the cultures, myths and philosophies of all Asia.

4) See my two-part article (here and here) summarizing theories about when the Kaifeng Jews first came to China.

5) Writing in 1850 CE, a Chinese protestant delegate sent to Kaifeng reported:

The present neglect of the Jewish religion is due to the fact that for these fifty years, there has been no one to instruct the members in the knowledge of the fifty-three sections of the Divine Scriptures, and in the twenty-seven [sic] letters of the Jewish alphabet (White, 1966, p. 116).

“These fifty years” implies that the last rabbi died around 1800 CE.

6) Beyond a mention of a specific “magic time traveling cave” in “Cave” (Bigman, 2024, p. 112), the reason for their time-jumping is never openly explained in the narrative. But Joel notes in his “Afterward” that he did this just so the Tang Monk could meet famous Jewish holy men (Bigman, 2024, p. 260).

7) The first minor issue is plot holes. For example, in “Kaifeng,” after being asked by Xuanzang to be his guide, Bear exclaims: “I have always wanted to go west, to where my people came from. I’ll gladly join you!” (Bigman, 2024, p. 19). But despite having never gone there, he spends the rest of the story expertly guiding the group throughout Historic Palestine like he’s intimately familiar with the routes, towns, and people. Another is that the pilgrims are able to understand spoken Hebrew without the narrative ever mentioning when they first started learning it. For instance, in “Oven,” Sun Wukong understands a debate between Jewish sages: “Old Monkey listened carefully and while it was hard to follow, the question seemed to be whether this specific oven was ritually pure or impure, or maybe whether it could become impure or not” (Bigman, 2024, p. 32). He goes on to use his magic to produce biblical miracles that support one holy man’s exclamations of truth (Bigman, 2024, pp. 34-35). In “Angels,” Bear claims out of nowhere that Xuanzang has been “learn[ing] their language, at least a bit,” and the Tang Monk shortly thereafter speaks to Moses with “accented formal Hebrew” (Bigman, 2024, p. 47). Official Hebrew lessons (in this case reading) are not mentioned until “Mother” (Bigman, 2024, p. 158). A lesser plot hole appears at the end of a particular chapter where Monkey rolls up the recently flayed hide of a biblical baddie on his staff, shrinks it, and stores it to never be seen again (Bigman, 2024, p. 80). I would have liked to have seen the skin play a part in another episode, perhaps serving as a magic blanket or being tailored into a magic robe.

The second minor issue is inconsistency. For instance, in “Kaifeng,” the sequel states that Monkey’s magic staff weighs 17,500 jin (22,762.73 lbs./10,325 kg), but “Oven” changes this to the novel accurate number of 13,500 jin (17,560 lbs./7,965 kg) (Bigman, 2024, pp. 17 and 35). “Leviathan” ups this to an astounding 54,000 jin (70,239.28 lbs./31,860 kg), and then “Skip” sees Sun hand the weapon to Moses, who picks it up with ease (Bigman, 2024, pp. 73 and 183). So, either the prophet is crazy strong, or Joel forgot how much the weapon weighs.

The third minor issue is typos. The book could do with an additional copy edit. I’ve alerted Joel to the misprints I noticed during my readings (please forgive any typos that are overlooked in this article).

Sources:

Bigman, J. (2024). The Second Journey. Hong Kong: Earnshaw Books Ltd. Retrieved from https://www.amazon.com/Second-Journey-Joel-Bigman/dp/9888843702.

Buswell, R. E. , & Lopez, D. S. (2014). The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Huili, & Shi, Y. (1995). A Biography of the Tripitaka Master of the Great Ci’en Monastery of the Great Tang Dynasty (L. Rongxi Trans.). Berkeley, CA: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research. Retrieved from https://www.bdkamerica.org/product/a-biography-of-the-tripitaka-master-of-the-great-cien-monastery/.

Weisz, T. (2006). The Kaifeng Stone Inscriptions: The Legacy of the Jewish Community in Ancient China. Bloomington, IN: iUniverse.

White, W. C. (1966). Chinese Jews: A Compilation of Matters Relating to the Jews of K’ai-fêng Fu (2nd ed.). Canada: University of Toronto Press. Retrieved from https://archive.org/details/lccn_66026456/mode/2up.

A Survey of Sun Wukong’s Magic “Immortal Breath” and Its Abilities

Jim R. McClanahan Leave a comment

Sun Wukong first exhibits the ability to transform his magic hair in chapter two of Journey to the West (Xiyouji, 西遊記, 1592):

Plucking a handful of hairs from his own body and throwing them into his mouth, he chewed them to tiny pieces and then spat them into the air. “Change!” he cried, and they changed at once into two or three hundred little monkeys encircling the combatants on all sides. For you see, when someone acquires the body of an immortal, he can project his spirit, change his form, and perform all kinds of wonders. Since the Monkey King had become accomplished in the Way, every one of the eighty-four thousand hairs on his body could change into whatever shape or substance he desired (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 129).

拔一把毫毛，丟在口中嚼碎，望空噴去，叫一聲：「變！」即變做三、二百個小猴，週圍攢簇。 原來人得仙體，出神變化無方。不知這猴王自從了道之後，身上有八萬四千毛羽，根根能變，應物隨心。

This tactic of transforming chewed up hairs into dozens, hundreds, or even thousands of monkey clones also appears in chapters 3, 5, 21, 35, 44, 86, and 90 (A & B) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, pp. 132, 165, 172, & 409; vol. 2, pp. 138 & 277; vol. 3, p. 332; vol. 4, pp. 164-165, 168, 219, & 221). But these chewed up hairs can also be transformed into other objects, such as sleep-inducing bugs in chapters 5 and 86, as well as seven kinds of hawks in chapter 72 (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 165; vol. 3, p. 332; vol. 4, p. 168).

But the novel states that Monkey sometimes changes his hair by first blowing on it with his magic “immortal breath” (xianqi, 仙氣). This article will provide a brief survey of this skill and its abilities.

Table of Contents

1. Hair

Explicit mentions of the immortal breath show that it can transform hair into:

  • Ink-soaked brush to write on the Buddha’s hand (ch. 7) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 195).
  • Dagger to skin a tiger (ch. 14) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 310).
  • Three-ply hemp rope to tie up Zhu Bajie (ch. 19) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 385).
  • Duplicates of the Monkey King (fig. 1) (ch. 25, 27, 45, 73, 77, 84, 85, & 94) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, pp. 465; vol. 2, p. 27, 129, & 292; vol. 3, p. 340; vol. 4, pp. 20, 139, 151, & 293).
  • Copper coin to pay for paper (ch. 33) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, pp. 117-118).
  • Fake lesser demons (ch. 34) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, p. 122).
  • Yellow-gold rope to replace a magical weapon of the same name (ch. 34) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, p. 130).
  • Gold-plated, red lacquered box to hold a white jade token (ch. 37) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, p. 169).
  • Wrapper to infiltrate a demon’s lair (ch. 41) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, pp. 235-236).
  • Yellow hound to carry away a bogus immortal’s decapitated head (ch. 46) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, p. 308).
  • Hungry hawk to eat a bogus immortal’s entrails (ch. 46) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, p. 310).
  • Group of 30 tigers to scare away monks (ch. 64) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 194).
  • Sleep-inducing insects and lice, fleas, and bedbugs (ch. 71 (A & B) & 84) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, pp. 303 & 304; vol. 4, p. 139).
  • Gold-headed fly to scare a demon king (ch. 75) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 366).
  • Bow drill (comprised of a diamond bit, a bamboo strip, and a cotton string) to drill out of a dangerous magic treasure (ch. 75) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 369).
  • Very thin but long rope to climb out of a monster’s stomach (ch. 76) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 4, p. 3).
  • Thirty ropes for tying up bandits (ch. 97) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 4, p. 328).

It should be noted, however, that the novel is very inconsistent regarding this ability. The immortal breath is not always used; Sun often just commands the hair to transform or changes it without saying anything, such as in chapters 4, 33, 34 (A, B, & C), 42, 46, 49, 51, 59, 65, 68, 71, and 74 (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 156; vol. 2, p. 115, 124-125, 237, 301, 305, & 345-346; vol. 3, p. 13, 120, 216, 269, 305, & 358). The “chewing” and “spitting out” of the hair is another example (see above). But one might argue that spitting requires a build of air in the lungs, so by extension, the immortal breath is being used.

This inconsistency is probably due to the standard 1592 edition of Journey to the West coalescing from independent oral stories developed and told over the centuries (see the late-13th-century version of the story, for example). Therefore, some story tellers likely employed the immortal breath, while others did not.

sc137582 - small

Fig. 1 – “Wukong Blows His Hair” (c. 1882) by Yoshitoshi (larger version).

2. Staff

This immortal breath is also shown capable of transforming the magic iron staff (fig. 2).

  • Steel file to file through a magic golden ring pinning Monkey’s neck to a column (ch. 34) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, p. 129).
  • Razor to mutilate two lesser demons (ch. 63) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 180).
  • Flag pole to make a pair of magic cymbals stand upright (ch. 65) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 216).
  • Seventy forked weapons to cut the threads of supernatural spider webs (ch. 73) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 340).
  • Nail to prop open a demon’s mouth while Monkey climbs out of their stomach (ch. 83) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 4, p. 113).
  • Three-pointed drill to make a covert hole in a wardrobe (ch. 84) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 4, p. 139).

As noted above, the novel is inconsistent in this regard. For instance, Monkey changes the staff into a steel drill without blowing on it in chapter 65 (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 218). Likewise, no breath is used in chapters 46 and 84 when Sun transforms the weapon into razors for shaving heads (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, p. 305; vol. 4, p. 139).

Fig. 2 – Monkey pointing to the luminous iron pillar that will become his iron staff (larger version). From the Qing-Era Painted, Complete Edition Journey to the West (Qing caihui quanben Xiyouji, 清彩繪全本西遊記).

3. Miscellaneous 

Monkey can also transform items not in contact with his body.

3.1. Clothing Color

For instance, in chapter 46, he changes a Daoist lad’s clothing from a spring onion white robe into a brown monk’s robe (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, p. 305). 

3.2. Likeness

In chapter 78, Sun transforms Tripitaka into his likeness using a mask made from mud:

Pilgrim, too, had little alternative but to flatten the mud and press it on his own face and, after a little while, succeeded in making an apelike mask. Asking the Tang Monk to stand up but without uttering another word, Pilgrim pasted the mask on his master’s face and recited a magic spell. He then blew his immortal breath onto the mask, crying, “Change!” At once the elder took on the appearance of Pilgrim. He was told to take off his own garments and switch clothes with Pilgrim, who made the magic sign and then recited another spell to change into the form of the Tang Monk (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 4, p. 47).

行者沒奈何，將泥撲作一片，往自家臉上一安，做下個猴像的臉子。叫唐僧站起休動，再莫言語。貼在唐僧臉上，念動真言，吹口仙氣，叫：「變！」那長老即變做個行者模樣。脫了他的衣服，以行者的衣服穿上。行者卻將師父的衣服穿了，捻著訣，念個咒語，搖身變作唐僧的嘴臉。

Again, the novel is inconsistent regarding external objects. Sometimes Monkey bights his tongue and spits blood out to change said item, such as in chapter 25 (A & B) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, pp. 474-475 & 477; vol. 2, p. 303). [1-2] But, again, one could argue that the immortal breath is used as spitting requires a build-up of air in the lungs.

4. Special Abilities 

The immortal breath (fig. 3) is also shown to have other special abilities.

4.1. Healing

For instance, in chapter 46, Monkey uses it to heal a gaping wound in his stomach:

With a swagger, Pilgrim walked down to the execution site. Leaning himself on a huge pillar, he untied his robe and revealed his stomach. The executioner used a rope and tied his neck to the pillar; down below, another rope strapped his two legs also to the pillar. Then he wielded a sharp dagger and ripped Pilgrim’s chest downward, all the way to his lower abdomen. Pilgrim used both his hands to push open his belly, and then he took out his intestines, which he examined one by one. After a long pause, he put them back inside, coil for coil exactly as before. Grasping the skins of his belly and bringing them together with his hands, he blew his magic breath on his abdomen, crying, “Grow!” At once his belly closed up completely (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, p. 309).

行者搖搖擺擺，徑至殺場。將身靠著大樁，解開衣帶，露出肚腹。那劊子手將一條繩套在他膊項上，一條繩紮住他腿足，把一口牛耳短刀幌一幌，著肚皮下一割，搠個窟窿。這行者雙手爬開肚腹，拿出腸臟來，一條條理夠多時，依然安在裡面，照舊盤曲。捻著肚皮，吹口仙氣，叫：「長！」依然長合。

4.2. Soul Manipulation

The novel implies that Sun’s immortal breath also has the ability to manipulate souls. For example, in chapter 88, Sun uses it in an arcane ritual designed to bestow three human disciples with super human strength. The pertinent section reads:

In a secluded room behind the Gauze-Drying Pavilion, Pilgrim traced out on the ground a diagram of the Big Dipper. Then he asked the three princes to prostrate themselves inside the diagram and, with eyes closed, exercise the utmost concentration. Behind them he himself recited in silence the true sayings of realized immortality and intoned the words of Dharani as he blew divine breaths into their visceral cavities. Their primordial spirits [yuanshen, 元神] were thus restored to their original abodes …

行者才教三個王子都在暴紗亭後，靜室之間，畫了罡斗。教三人都俯伏在內，一個個瞑目寧神。這裡卻暗暗念動真言，誦動咒語，將仙氣吹入他三人心腹之中，把元神收歸本舍 。。。

The term “primordial spirits” (yuanshen, 元神) is commonly associated with Buddhahood or enlightenment. In Daoism, it is synonymous with the attainment of immortality via the formation of a “Sacred Embryo” (shengtai, 聖胎), which is forged from spiritual energies over long years of self-cultivation (Darga, 2008). This suggests that Monkey’s immortal breath also grants the disciples some form of immortality. You can read about the entire ritual here.

Fig. 3 – A vapor blowing smoke (larger version). I imagine this is what the immortal breath would look like. Image found here. Photographer unknown. 

And in chapter 97, Sun uses the immortal breath to transform an old man’s soul into “ether” for easy transport back to the world of the living:

Pilgrim changed the soul of the squire into ether [qi, 氣] by blowing on him. The ether was stored in his sleeve so that they could leave [Hell] and go back to the world of light together. Astride the clouds, he soon arrived at the Kou house. Eight Rules [Zhu Bajie] was told to pry open the lid of the coffin, and the soul of the squire was pushed into his body. In a moment, he began to breathe once more and revived (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 4, p. 339).

將他吹化為氣，掉於衣袖之間，同去幽府，復返陽間。駕雲頭，到了寇家，即喚八戒捎開材蓋，把他魂靈兒推付本身。須臾間，透出氣來活了。

The phrase “immortal breath” (xianqi, 仙氣) is missing in the original Chinese, but the ability’s use is understood as the passage mentions Monkey “blowing” (chui, 吹) on the soul.

V. Conclusion

Various chapters of Journey to the West show that Sun Wukong can use his immortal breath to transform his hair, his magic staff, and items not directly in contact with his body into anything he desires. These range from utilitarian items like files, blades, drills, and ropes to living creatures like insects, birds of prey, dogs, tigers, lesser demons, and even independent copies of himself. It can also change the color and appearance of clothing, as well as magically disguise someone when used in tandem with a mud mask. The skill’s special abilities include healing and soul manipulation. Evidence suggests that it can restore the “primordial spirit,” granting superhuman strength and some form of immortality, as well as transform souls into “ether” for better ease of transport.

The immortal breath, however, is not used consistently throughout the novel. Monkey sometimes chews up and spits out the hair, commands it to change, or simply transforms it without saying anything at all. This inconsistency is likely due to the novel coalescing from independent oral stories developed and told over the centuries.

Notes:

1) Thank you to Irwen Wong for reminding me of this.

2) The second instance of tongue-biting doesn’t mention the word for blood (xie, 血), but it can be understood to be present.

Sources:

Darga, M. (2008). Shengtai. In F. Pregadio (Ed.), The Encyclopedia of Taoism (Vols. 1-2) (pp. 883-884). London: Routledge].

Wu, C., & Yu, A. C. (2012). The Journey to the West (Vols. 1-4). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press.

The Monkey King’s Magic Staff: A Complete Guide

Jim R. McClanahan 3 Comments

Last updated: 04-23-2026

I’ve written many articles on the origins of the Monkey King’s staff over the years. Therefore, I’ve decided to combine all of the information in one location for the benefit of people wishing to learn more about the weapon and its history. This will no doubt be interesting to fans of Journey to the West (Xiyouji, 西遊記, 1592; JTTW hereafter), as well as those of modern franchises like Dragon Ball and Lego Monkie Kid (fig. 1). Citations can be found in the articles linked below.

Fig. 1 – A fan edit of the Lego Monkie Kid character “MK” wielding the Monkey King’s magic staff (larger version). Copyright Lego.

Table of Contents

1. The Literary Weapon

1.1. Staff Background

The staff first appears in chapter three of the original novel when the Monkey King goes to the underwater kingdom of Ao Guang (敖廣), the Dragon King of the Eastern Sea, looking for a magic weapon to match his supernatural strength and martial skill. When all of the traditional weapons offered to him fail to meet his standards, the dragon queen suggests to her husband that they give Sun Wukong “that piece of rare magic iron” taking up space in their treasury. She claims the ancient shaft had started producing heavenly light days prior and proposes that the monkey is fated to own it. The weapon is said to be a “divine treasure iron” originally used to set the depths of the Heavenly River (Tianhe ding di de shenzhen tie, 天河定底的神珍鐵) by Yu the Great (Dayu, 大禹), a mythic Chinese emperor and demigod.

The staff is initially described as a pillar of black iron or bin steel more than 20 feet in height and as wide as a barrel. It is only when Monkey lifts it and suggests a smaller size would be more manageable that the staff complies with his wishes and shrinks. This is when Sun notices that the weapon is decorated with a golden ring on each end, as well as an inscription along the body reading: “The ‘As-You-Will’ Gold-Banded Cudgel. Weight: Thirteen Thousand Five Hundred Catties” (Ruyi jingu bang zhong yiwan sanqian wubai jin, 如意金箍棒重一萬三千五百斤). The inscription indicates that the staff is immensely heavy, weighing 17,560 lbs. (7,965 kg).

Apart from the above information, a poem in chapter 75 (see section 2.3 here) highlights another name, “Rod of Numinous Yang” (Lingyang bang, 靈陽棒). In addition, the poem describes the staff being covered in “tracks of planets and stars” (i.e. astronomical charts) and esoteric “dragon and phoenix scripts” (longwen yu fengzhuan, 龍紋與鳳篆).

The novel provides two contradictory origins for the staff. The chapter 75 poem notes that it “[w]as forged in the stove by Laozi himself.” Laozi is of course the high god of Daoism. Chapter 88 instead states that it was “forged at Creation’s dawn / By Yu the Great himself, the god-man of old.”

Contrary to popular images of the Monkey King holding a regular-sized staff, his literary counterpart wields a massive weapon in battle. It is said to be 20 feet long (likely an error for 12), [1] with the width of a bowl (erzhang changduan, wankou cuxi, 二丈長短，碗口粗細) (fig. 2). I did a cursory search of bowls during the Ming (when the standard edition of JTTW was published) and found that they have a radius of between 4 to 6 inches (10.16 to 15.25 cm).

Fig. 2 – An accurate depiction of the size of Monkey’s staff (larger version). Images found here. Artwork by @真·迪绝人.

1.2. Staff Powers

The staff is shown to have multiple powers.

  1. Size manipulation – This is the weapon’s most well-known ability, growing as big or as small as Monkey wishes.
  2. Controlling the oceans –  The aforementioned poem from chapter 88 writes: “The depths of all oceans, rivers, and lakes / Were fathomed and fixed by this very rod. / Having bored through mountains and conquered floods, / It stayed in East Ocean and ruled the seas…”
  3. Astral entanglement – Monkey’s soul is able to use the staff in Hell despite the physical weapon being with his sleeping body in the world of the living. (See the 04-23-26 update below for more info.)
  4. Multiplication – He can multiply his staff in the hundreds of thousands.
  5. Lock-Picking – He can open any door just by pointing it at the lock.
  6. Transformation – He can change it into tools like a straight razor or a drill.
  7. Sentience – The weapon glows in anticipation of Monkey’s arrival (fig. 3), responds to his touch, and follows his commands, denoting a certain level of sentience.

Fig. 3 – Monkey pointing to the luminous iron pillar (larger version). From the Qing-Era Painted, Complete Edition Journey to the West (Qing caihui quanben Xiyouji, 清彩繪全本西遊記).

2. Origins

2.1. Literary Precursors

The staff found in the standard Ming edition of JTTW is actually based on two weapons from a 17-chapter storytelling prompt called The Story of How Tripitaka of the Great Tang Procured the Scriptures (Da Tang Sanzang qujing shihua, 大唐三藏取經詩話, c. late 13th-century). Sun Wukong’s precursor, an ageless immortal called the “Monkey Pilgrim” (Hou xingzhe, 猴行者), magically transports Tripitaka and his entourage to heaven. There, the supreme god, the Mahābrahmā Devarāja (Dafan tianwang, 大梵天王; i.e. Vaiśravana), gives the monk a cap of invisibility, a khakkhara (ringed monk’s staff) (fig. 4), and a begging bowl. Tripitaka and the Monkey Pilgrim take turns using these items throughout the journey. The staff is shown capable of shooting destructive beams of light, as well as transforming into magical creatures like an iron dragon or a giant, club-wielding Yaksha. Later, the Monkey Pilgrim also borrows an iron staff from heaven to fight a dragon.

The two staves from this tale were eventually combined by later storytellers. The rings from the first weapon were added to the ends of the second.

Fig. 4 – A beautiful, modern monk’s staff with six rings (larger version).

2.2. Influence from Religion

The Monkey Pilgrim’s magic ringed staff and begging bowl were directly influenced by the Buddhist Saint Mulian (目連; Sk: Maudgalyayana), a disciple of the historical Buddha. One particular 9th to 10th-century story notes that the Saint uses the staff to unlock the gates of hell in order to save his mother (fig. 5). This is where Sun Wukong’s weapon from JTTW gets the power to open locks.

Mulian saves his mother, scroll - small

Fig. 5 – A scroll or mural depicting Mulian rescuing his mother from the underworld (larger version). Originally found here.

The ringed and metal staves used by the Monkey Pilgrim are based on those historically carried by Buddhist monks in ancient China. The aforementioned ringed variety, called “tin staves” (xizhang, 錫杖) where used by religious monks and decorated with six to twelve metal rings (see fig. 4). These rings were designed to make a clanging noise to not only scare away animals on the road but also to alert possible donors to the monk’s presence.

Martial monks charged with protecting monasteries or deployed by the Chinese government against pirates wielded wooden or iron staves (fig. 6). The former were chosen for their diminished capacity for fatal injuries, while the latter were explicitly used for killing during times of war. Sun Wukong wielding the iron variety makes sense as he’s a martial monk charged with protecting Tripitaka from monsters and spirits.

Fig. 6 – A martial monk practicing a drunken staff-fighting form (larger version).

The term “As-you-will” (ruyi, 如意) from Monkey’s staff (mentioned above) is connected with a scepter used in ancient China as a symbol of religious debate and authority and, to a lesser extent, as a weapon. While it can be traced to a Hindo-Buddhist tradition in India, the scepter came to be associated with the highest gods of Daoism thanks to being decorated with a “numinous mushroom” (lingzhi, 靈芝), a real world fungi believed to bestow immortality. This mushroom scepter was at some point associated with the Buddhist Cintamani (Ruyi zhu, 如意珠), or “As-you-will jewel.” This was believed to grant any wish that one might desire. This explains why Monkey’s As-you-will staff grows or shrinks according to his commands. It’s interesting to note that some religious images of the scepter depict it with a syncretic mix of the Daoist mushroom and the Buddhist jewel (fig. 7).

Fig. 7 – An enhanced detail of the Celestial Worthy’s mushroom scepter with a flaming as-you-will jewel (larger version). See here for a fuller version of the deity.

2.3. Influence from Popular Literature

The weapon’s portrayal in JTTW as an iron pillar kept in the dragon kingdom comes from old stories about the immortal Xu Xun (許遜), a historical Daoist master and minor government official from Jiangsu province. Popular tales describe him as a Chinese St. Patrick who traveled southern China ridding the land of flood dragons. One 17th-century version titled “An Iron Tree at Jingyang Palace Drives Away Evil” (Jingyang gong tieshu zhenyao, 旌陽宮鐵樹鎮妖) describes how he chained the flood dragon patriarch to an iron tree (tieshu, 鐵樹) and submerged it in a well, thus preventing the serpent’s children from leaving their subterranean aquatic realm and causing trouble. Pre-JTTW versions of this tale depict the tree as an actual iron pillar (fig. 8). Chinese Five Elements Theory dictates that metal produces water, and as its creator, holds dominion over it. Therefore, an iron pillar would be the perfect item to ward off creatures entrenched in the aquatic environment.

Fig. 8 – A Ming Dynasty woodblock print depicting the immortal Xu overseeing the creation of the iron pillar in a furnace (right) and it’s placement the well (left). Dated 1444-1445 (larger version).

As previously noted, the staff weighs 17,560 lbs. (7,965 kg). This is likely based on an episode from chapter 27 of the Chinese novel Water Margin (Shuihu zhuan, 水滸傳, c. 1400). It involves the bandit Wu Song lifting a heavy stone block said to weigh 300 to 500 catties (san wu bai jin, 三五百斤; 390-650 lbs./177-295 kg) (fig. 9). This scene and the one from JTTW where Monkey lifts the iron pillar are quite similar. Both involve a hero (Wu Song vs. Sun Wukong) asking someone (Shi En vs. Ao Guang) to show them a heavy object that cannot be moved (stone block vs. iron pillar). Both heroes then adjust their clothing before easily lifting the object with both hands. Most importantly, the Chinese characters for the weight of each object (三五百斤 vs. 一萬三千五百斤) are similar. The only difference is the addition of “10,000” (yiwan, 一萬) and “1,000” (qian, 千), respectively. And given the close historical and cultural ties between the two heroes, I believe the author-compiler of JTTW embellished the Water Margin episode to portray Sun as a hero like no other, a divine immortal that can lift weights far beyond even Wu Song himself.

Fig. 9 – Wu Song lifts the stone block (larger version). Image found here.

3. Updates

Update: 04-23-26

Above, I wrote: “Astral entanglement – Monkey’s soul is able to use the staff in Hell despite the physical weapon being with his sleeping body in the world of the living.”

Sun’s use of said weapon also caught the attention of late-Ming commentators. The authors of The Book to Enlightenment of the Journey to the West (Xiyou Zhengdao Shu, 西遊證道書, 1663), a Daoist commentary on the novel, asked:

“Did he take this treasure with him in his dream?”

此寶貝夢中亦帶去耶？ (Converted from simplified Chinese – source).

Note:

1) Irwen Wong of the Journey to the West Library blog has suggested that the length is likely an error for 12 feet (zhanger, 丈二) since the staff was already near 20 feet when Monkey first acquired it, and he later asked it to shrink to a more manageable size.

Dragon Ball and Journey to the West

Jim R. McClanahan 4 Comments

Last updated: 12-29-2022

It recently occurred to me that I’ve referenced the Dragon Ball franchise in several blog articles. So, I’ve taken the opportunity to gather everything into one spot, including information that I haven’t previously mentioned. This is meant to be a very basic introduction and not an exhaustive analysis. My current interest here is in modern adaptations of Journey to the West (Xiyouji, 西遊記, 1592; “JTTW” hereafter).

Those interested in a broader discussion on the influences of Dragon Ball should consult the work of Derek Padula.

I. Son Goku

The name of the series protagonist, Son Goku (孫悟空) (fig. 1), is a Japanese transliteration of Sun Wukong, meaning “Monkey Aware of Emptiness,” an allusion to Buddhist enlightenment. While referencing Rhesus macaques and “grandsons,” the surname Sun (孫), is also a veiled symbol for the development of an immortal spirit in Taoist elixir arts. Therefore, the name Son Goku straddles both Buddhism and Taoism.

Goku’s monkey tail, flying nimbus cloud, and extending power pole (fig. 2) are all based on the respective trait, skill, and weapon of the Monkey King. The latter’s skill is called the “Cloud Somersault (jindou yun, 筋斗雲), which can travel 108,000 li (33,554 mi / 54,000 km), or one and one-third the circumference of Earth, in a single leap. Sun’s staff, the “‘As-You-Will‘ Gold-Banded staff,” weighs a whopping 17,560 lbs (7,965 kg) and (among other abilities) can magically grow as big or shrink as small as the immortal desires.

Goku’s proficiency in boxing (fig. 3) has a fun connection to Sun Wukong. Series creator Akira Toriyama partly based the Saiyan’s fighting style on the Wing Chun techniques used by Bruce Lee and Jackie Chan in their respective films. This style falls under the umbrella term “Short Fist” (Duan quan, 短拳), a school of martial arts with a low stance and quick, compact punches. JTTW states that this very style is the Monkey King’s preferred fighting technique! He uses Short Fist a few times in the novel.

The spherical spaceship that baby Goku crash lands on Earth in from DBZ (fig. 4) is a clever nod to the magic stone that Sun Wukong is born from in the beginning of the novel.

Goku’s Ozaro (大猿) form, or his ability to change into a titanic “great ape” during a full moon (fig. 5), is largely based on the Monkey King’s cosmic transformation. The novel calls this magical skill the “Method of Modeling Heaven on Earth” (Fatian xiangdi, 法天像地), and Sun uses it to grow 100,000 feet (30,480 m) tall during battles with powerful opponents. This is related to ancient Pre-Qin and Han dynasty concepts of astral-geography later used in the construction of imperial Chinese cities.

While I don’t have confirmation from Toriyama, Goku’s “Instant Transmission” skill (fig. 6) might be based on the aforementioned cloud somersault. This is because Chinese Buddhist literature mentions the world of man is separated from the Buddha’s paradise by 108,000 li (the distance covered by the cloud), and the only way to instantly bypass all of the hardships in-between is achieving enlightenment. Hence the cloud somersault is symbolic of instant travel.

II. Other characters

Goku’s early quest to find the dragon balls along with Bulma (Tripitaka), the shape-shifting pig Oolong (Zhu Bajie), and the desert bandit Yamcha (Sha Wujing) is based on the quest for sutras in JTTW. Not surprisingly, other DB/DBZ characters come from the Chinese novel. The Ox-King and Chi-Chi are respectively based on the Bull Demon King and his wife, Princess Iron Fan (fig. 7). Tien Shinhan is based on Erlang, the only god to truly defeat Sun Wukong, which is why Tien is such a threat to young Goku.

Goku’s martial arts teacher, Master Roshi, is based on the Buddho-Taoist Sage Subodhi who teaches Sun Wukong magic and the secret of immortality. Subodhi is based on Subhuti, a historical disciple of the Buddha. This is hilarious when you think about how much of a pervert Roshi is (fig. 8).

The antagonist Broly (fig. 9) wears a shock collar and mind-controlling headband in various DB media. These are based on the Monkey King’s “Golden Fillet” (jing gu quan, 金箍圈), which represses his unruly nature by painfully constricting around his head when a magic spell is chanted. It’s interesting to note that this fillet is based on a historical ritual headband worn by ancient Indian Buddhist yogins as a physical reminder of self-restraint.

III. Miscellaneous

The senzu (仙豆, “immortal bean”) (fig. 10) used by Goku and other Z fighters to replenish their strength from prolonged training or battle are based on immortality-bestowing elixir pills that Sun Wukong eats while drunkenly stumbling through the laboratory of the Taoist high god Laozi. Once eaten, the pills immediately counteract the effects of the heavenly wine.

Update: 03-20-22

I recently remembered that I’ve also referenced the origin of the spikey hair in esoteric Buddhist art. On 02-14-2019 I posted on twitter saying: “Goku’s spiked hair is based on esoteric guardian deities. For ex., here is Tianpeng, the former incarnation of Oolong’s precursor Zhu Bajie [fig. 11].”

Update: 12-20-22

I first became interested in JTTW thanks to Dragon Ball Z. The series is obviously named after the seven glass-like orbs (fig. 12) created by the Namekian-turned-protector deity Kami for the benefit of mankind. When all seven are collected, they summon the dragon god Shenron, who grants a single wish. One common wish is to resurrect a beloved fighter who had previously been killed in battle.

But what would the Dragon Balls be like if they appeared in the JTTW universe? There are two possibilities. The first is the most obvious, the Cintāmaṇi (Sk: “wish-fulfilling jewel”; Ch: ruyi baozhu, 如意寶珠, lit: “as-you-will treasure jewel”). Also known as “dragon jewels” (longzhu, 龍珠), these luminous orbs are commonly held by Bodhisattvas in Buddhist art (fig. 13), thereby signifying their ability to grant any wish that a believer desires. They are also mentioned in Buddhist scripture. For instance, the Treatise of the Great Perfection of Wisdom (Sk: Mahāprajñāpāramitāśāstra; Ch: Da zhidu lun, 大智度論, c. 2nd-century) reveals that the Cintāmaṇi is a bodily relic found in the brains of dragon kings (longzhu chu longnao zhong, 龍珠出龍腦中) (Buswell & Lopez, 2014, p. 193). Therefore, we would be able to maintain the connection to dragons in JTTW.

(If we view Dragon Ball Z under the light of this new information, a creepy implication is that Kami killed seven dragon kings in order to create his set of dragon balls.)

In East Asia, the Cintāmaṇi is closely associated with our second possibility, the Śarīra (Sk: “body”; Ch: Sushe/zi, 舍利/子) (fig. 14). These pearl-like beads figure among the bodily relics left over from the historical Buddha’s cremation. [1] Strong (2004) explains: “[They are the result] of a process of metamorphosis brought on not only by the fire of cremation but also by the perfections of the saint (in this case the Buddha) whose body they re-present” (p. 12).

They are said to come in different colors and sizes depending on the country and religious tradition (Strong, 2004, p. 11).

JTTW could have one or even both of these items. For example, the Cintāmaṇi would allow demon kings or lesser spirits to wish for powerful heavenly weapons, thereby helping them fight stronger opponents; or, the Śarīra could grant the devils more spiritual power, thereby allowing them to bypass centuries of spiritual cultivation.

But neither of these things could help evil beings achieve immortality. I’ve previously noted that JTTW was heavily influenced by the Buddho-Daoist philosophy of the Southern Quanzhen School Patriarch Zhang Boduan (張伯端, mid to late-980s-1082). He believed that in order to become a true transcendent (xian, 仙), one had to achieve both the Daoist elixir of immortality and Buddha-nature (Shao, 1997; 2006). The first extends your life, while the second frees you from the endless rounds of rebirth. While the aforementioned spiritual objects may grant them divine longevity, it won’t make them unkillable. And if they are killed, they would still be subject to the wheel of reincarnation. It would be up to them to achieve the last step in this two-step process. But that would require these spirits to mend their evil ways and “return to the right path” (gui zheng, 歸正)⁠—i.e. convert to Buddhism.

Update: 12-29-22

It turns out that JTTW has śarīra beads. In fact, they are mentioned at least 18 times throughout the novel. One example is a treasure belonging to the Yellow-Robed Demon (Huangpao guai, 黃袍怪). Chapter 31 reads:

Leading Pilgrim [Sun Wukong], the fiend [Yellow Robe] took his companion into the murky depth of the cave before spitting out from his mouth a treasure having the size of a chicken egg. It was a śarīra [shelizi, 舍利子] of exquisite internal elixir. Secretly delighted, Pilgrim said to himself, “Marvelous thing! It’s unknown how many sedentary exercises had been performed, how many years of trials and sufferings had elapsed, how many times the union of male and female forces had taken place before this śarīra of internal elixir was formed. What great affinity it has today that it should encounter old Monkey!” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, pp. 80-81). [2]

那怪攜著行者，一直行到洞裡深遠密閉之處。卻從口中吐出一件寶貝，有雞子大小，是一顆舍利子玲瓏內丹。行者心中暗喜道：「好東西耶。這件物不知打了多少坐工，煉了幾年磨難，配了幾轉雌雄，煉成這顆內丹舍利。今日大有緣法，遇著老孫。」

As can be seen, Yellow Robe’s śarīra is portrayed as the hard-won product of spiritual cultivation. This agrees with Strong’s (2004) statement above that Buddhists believed such beads were “brought on not only by the fire of cremation but also by the perfections of the saint (emphasis added) … whose body they re-present” (p. 12).

Note:

1) There are three main types of Buddha relics: 1) those of the body left over from his cremation (hair, teeth, nails, bones, and Śarīra beads); 2) those that he used (walking staff, alms bowl, robes, etc.); and 3) those that he taught (i.e. lessons from scripture) (Strong, 2004, p. 8).

2) Source altered slightly. I’ve made it more accurate.

Sources:

Buswell, R. E., & Lopez, D. S. (2014). The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Shao, P. (1997). Monkey and Chinese Scriptural Tradition: A Rereading of the Novel Xiyouji (UMI No. 9818173) [Doctoral dissertation, Washington University]. Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database.

Shao, P. (2006). Huineng, Subhūti, and Monkey’s Religion in “Xiyou ji”. The Journal of Asian Studies, 65(4), 713-740. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/25076127.

Strong, J. S. (2004). Relics of the Buddha. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Wu, C., & Yu, A. C. (2012). The Journey to the West (Vols. 1-4) (Rev. ed.). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press.

The Magic Powers of the Monkey King’s Iron Staff

Jim R. McClanahan 3 Comments

Last updated: 07-04-2021

I’ve written several articles on Sun Wukong’s iron staff, including its origin from religious and martial staves used by historical Buddhist monks, the meaning of its inscription (“‘As-You-Will’ Gold-Banded Cudgel. Weight: 17,560 lbs” (7,965 kg)), the real world metal that it is made from, its ties to Yu the Great and flood control, its ties to the Buddhist Saint Mulian, its possible ties to a Hindu monument, and modern day misconceptions about its ability to weigh down the entire Milky Way galaxy. Now, I’d like to briefly survey the magic powers associated with this weapon. This will by no means be exhaustive.

I. Powers

A. Size Manipulation

Sun travels to the Eastern Sea Dragon King’s underwater kingdom in ch. 3 to acquire a celestial weapon. But when the immortal fails to find a suitably heavy armament, the Dragon Queen suggests that they give him a black iron pillar from their treasury. It is described as over 20 feet (6.096 m) in height and the width of a barrel. Only when Monkey lifts the pillar and suggests a smaller size would be more manageable does it comply with his wishes:

Wukong girded up his clothes and went forward to touch it: it was an iron rod more than twenty feet long and as thick as a barrel. Using all his might, he lifted it with both hands, saying, “It’s a little too long and too thick. It would be more serviceable if it were somewhat shorter and thinner.” Hardly had he finished speaking when the treasure shrunk a few feet in length and became a layer thinner. “Smaller still would be even better,” said Wukong, giving it another bounce in his hands. Again the treasure became smaller. Highly pleased, Wukong took it out of the ocean treasury to examine it. He found a golden hoop at each end, with solid black iron in between. Immediately adjacent to one of the hoops was the inscription, “The ‘As-You-Wish’ Gold-Banded Cudgel. Weight: 17,560 lbs. [Ruyi jingu bang zhong yiwan sanqian wubai jin, 如意金箍棒重一萬三千五百斤]” (Wu & Yu, 2012, p. 135). [1]

Later in the chapter, Sun shows off the new weapon to his children by shrinking it to the size of a needle and then expanding it to a literal pillar of heaven.

He held the treasure [the staff] in his hands and called out, “Smaller, smaller, smaller!” and at once it shrank to the size of a tiny embroidery needle, small enough to be hidden inside the ear. Awestruck, the monkeys cried, “Great King! Take it out and play with it some more.” The Monkey King took it out from his ear and placed it on his palm. “Bigger, bigger, bigger!” he shouted, and again it grew to the thickness of a barrel and more than twenty feet long. He became so delighted playing with it that he jumped onto the bridge and walked out of the cave. Grasping the treasure in his hands, he began to perform the magic of cosmic imitation. Bending over, he cried, “Grow!” and at once grew to be one hundred thousand feet tall, [2] with a head like the Tai Mountain and a chest like a rugged peak, eyes like lightning and a mouth like a blood bowl, and teeth like swords and halberds. The rod in his hands was of such a size that its top reached the thirty-third Heaven and its bottom the eighteenth layer of Hell (fig. 1) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 138).

cosmic transformation

Fig. 1 – Monkey grows his staff to touch heaven as he performs a cosmic transformation for his children (larger version). Original artist unknown. Found on this article.

B. Controlling the oceans

Prior to giving Monkey the staff, the Dragon King tells his wife, “That…was the measure with which [Yu the Great] fixed the depths of rivers and oceans when he conquered the Flood” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 135). Later, in ch. 88 our hero recites a poem in which he gives more detail about the weapon’s origins and history. The first few lines discuss its power over water:

An iron rod forged at Creation’s dawn
By Great Yu himself, the god-man of old.
The depths of all oceans, rivers, and lakes
Were fathomed and fixed by this very rod.
Having bored through mountains and conquered floods,
It stayed in East Ocean and ruled the seas,
[…] (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 4, p. 201).

Despite the staff’s influence on bodies of water both great and small, it paradoxically doesn’t grant Sun an advantage when traveling through the aquatic realm or fighting water-based demons. [3] I’ll just chalk this up to inconsistencies born from oral storytelling.

C. Astral entanglement

Ch. 3 shows that Monkey’s soul is able to use the staff in the underworld even when the physical weapon is back with his body in the world of the living.

In his sleep the Handsome Monkey King saw two men approach with a summons with the three characters “Sun Wukong” written on it. They walked up to him and, without a word, tied him up with a rope and dragged him off. The soul of the Handsome Monkey King was reeling from side to side. They reached the edge of a city. The Monkey King was gradually coming to himself, when he lifted up his head and suddenly saw above the city an iron sign bearing in large letters the three words “Region of Darkness.” … Yanking and pulling, they were determined to haul him inside. Growing angry, the Monkey King whipped out his treasure. One wave of it turned it into the thickness of a rice bowl; he raised his hand once, and the two summoners were reduced to hash.

[…]

[After reprimanding the 10 judges for bringing his soul to hell, Sun says,] “All I want is to erase my name [from the ledgers of life and death]. Bring me a brush.” The judge hurriedly fetched the brush and soaked it in heavy ink. Wukong took the ledger on monkeys and crossed out all the names he could find in it [fig. 2]. Throwing down the ledger, he said, “That ends the account! That ends the account! Now I’m truly not your subject.” Brandishing his rod, he fought his way out of the Region of Darkness.

[…]

While our Monkey King was fighting his way out of the city, he was suddenly caught in a clump of grass and stumbled. Waking up with a start, he realized that it was all a dream (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 139).

Sun’s ability to use the weapon as a disembodied spirit implies that it has some power of astral projection and entanglement (i.e. it goes where his soul goes). However, to my knowledge, this only happens once in the story, and the novel clearly demonstrates that he can’t use the weapon if it is physically taken away from him. [4] This is likely another inconsistency from oral storytelling.

Fig. 2 – Monkey holds his staff as he strikes his name from the Book of Life and Death (larger version). From the Japanese children’s book Son Goku (1939). 

D. Multiplication

The weapon is shown capable of creating manifold copies of itself. For example, in ch. 4, Monkey multiplies his staff to accommodate his monstrous, multi-armed form while fighting Prince Nezha: “Dear Great Sage! He shouted, ‘Change!’ and he too transformed himself into a creature with three heads and six arms. One wave of the golden-hooped rod and it became three staffs, which were held with six hands” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 155). Later in ch. 50, he rains staves down on a demonic army.

Using the tip of his lance to point at the ground, the demon king shouted for the little imps to attack together. All those brazen fiends, wielding swords, scimitars, staffs, and spears, rushed forward at once and surrounded the Great Sage Sun completely. Entirely undaunted, Pilgrim only cried, “Welcome! Welcome! That’s exactly what I want!” He used his golden-hooped rod to cover his front and back, to parry blows east and west, but that gang of fiends refused to be beaten back. Growing more agitated, Pilgrim tossed his rod up into the air, shouting, “Change!” It changed immediately into iron rods by the hundreds and thousands; like flying snakes and soaring serpents, they descended onto the fiends from the air” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, p. 372).

E. Lock-Picking

Sun demonstrates the staff’s magic lock-picking ability in ch. 25.

The doors are all locked. Where are we going to go?” “Watch my power!” said Pilgrim. He seized his golden-hooped rod and exercised the lock-opening magic; he pointed the rod at the door and all the locks fell down with a loud pop as the several doors immediately sprung open. “What talent!” said Eight Rules, laughing. “Even if a little smith were to use a lock pick, he wouldn’t be able to do this so nimbly.” Pilgrim said, “This door is nothing! Even the South Heaven Gate would immediately fly open if I pointed this at it!” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, pp. 468-469).

Admittedly, this passage could be read two ways: 1) The staff opens the lock; 2) Monkey uses the staff as a conduit for his own lock-picking magic. But I’m choosing the first interpretation as this ability was likely influenced by Saint Mulian unlocking the gates of hell with his staff. [5]

F. Transformation

In ch. 46, during a competition of Buddhist and Daoist prognostication, Sun magically disguises himself as a Daoist lad’s ritual master and convinces the boy to let him shave his head: “He changed his golden-hooped rod into a sharp razor, and hugging the lad, he said, ‘Darling, try to endure the pain for a moment. Don’t make any noise! I’ll shave your head.’ In a little while, the lad’s hair was completely shorn” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, p. 305). In ch. 65, Sun turns the staff into a drill in order to escape from a pair of magic cymbals, using the tool to bore a hole in the horn of a dragon that was just able to pierce the seam: “Marvelous Great Sage! He changed the golden-hooped rod into a steel drill and drilled a hole on the tip of the horn. Transforming his body into the size of a mustard seed, he stuck himself inside the hole and yelled, ‘Pull the horn out! Pull the horn out!'” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 218).

G. Sentience

When the Dragon Queen originally suggests giving the pillar to Monkey, she tells her husband: “These past few days the iron has been glowing with a strange and lovely light [fig. 3]. Could this be a sign that it should be taken out to meet this sage?” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 135). This might imply the weapon was aware of its new master’s imminent arrival. Later in ch. 75, Sun recites a poem speaking of the staff’s desire for flight.

Its name was one Rod of Numinous Yang,
Stored deep in the sea, hardly seen by men.
Well-formed and transformed it wanted to fly,
Emitting bright strands of five-colored mist.
Enlightened Monkey took it back to the mount
To experience its pow’r for boundless change.
[…] (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 375).

The phase “wanting to fly” (yao feiteng, 要飛騰) could be read as a metaphor for yearning to be released from the dragon treasury and/or a call for adventure. Add to this the staff’s ability to follow Sun’s wishes to grow, shrink, multiply, change form, and pick locks. Therefore, the novel depicts the staff having a certain amount of awareness. [6]

Fig. 3 – Monkey pointing to the luminous iron pillar (larger version). From the Qing-Era Painted, Complete Edition Journey to the West (Qing caihui quanben Xiyouji, 清彩繪全本西遊記).

II. Conclusion

Journey to the West (1592) describes the Monkey King’s iron staff having the magic power to shrink and grow, control the ocean, astral project and entangle with Monkey’s spirit, multiply endlessly, pick locks, and transform into various objects. It also has sentience to a certain degree.

Update: 07-04-21

Here I present my theory on why Sun Wukong’s staff weighs 13,500 catties (17,560 lbs/7,965 kg). I believe the number is an embellishment on the weight of a stone block lifted by the bandit Wu Song in the Water Margin (c. 1400).

The Weight of the Monkey King’s Staff: A Literary Origin

Notes

1) I have changed Yu’s (Wu & Yu, 2012) dry rendering “Compliant Golden-Hooped Rod” to the more pleasant one based on W.J.F. Jenner. Also, Yu’s original translation says “13,500 pounds”. However, the Chinese version uses jin (斤), known in English as “catty“. The catty and pound are two different measures of weight, the former being heavier than the latter. Therefore, the English text has been altered to show this. The catty during the Ming Dynasty when the novel was compiled equaled 590 grams (Elvin, 2004, p. 491 n. 133), so 13,500 catties would equal 17,550 lb.

2) Here, Yu’s (Wu & Yu, 2012) English translation says Monkey grows to be “ten thousand feet tall”. However, the original Chinese source reads “萬丈” (wanzhang), wan meaning 10,000 and zhang being a measure designating 10 Chinese feet (10,000 x 10 = 100,000). Therefore, I have changed the source to read “One hundred thousand feet”, much like Yu (Wu & Yu, 2012) translates it in chapters six (vol. 1, p. 181) and 61 (vol. 3, p. 157).

3). For example, Monkey relies on Zhu Bajie to fight Sha Wujing when they first come across him at the Flowing-Sands River. This is when Sun admits his weakness to water:

“Worthy Brother,” said Pilgrim with a laugh, “in this case I’ve really nothing to brag about, for I’m just not comfortable doing business in water. If all I do is walk around down there, I still have to make the magic sign and recite the water-repelling spell before I can move anywhere. Or else I have to change into a water creature like a fish, shrimp, crab, or turtle before going in. If it were a matter of matching wits in the high mountains or up in the clouds, I know enough to deal with the strangest and most difficult situation. But doing business in water somewhat cramps my style!” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, pp. 423-424).

4) The rhinoceros demon sucks it away with Laozi’s magic steel bracelet in ch. 50 and 51. A lion spirit uses a magic wind to steal the weapons of all three pilgrims in ch. 88. In both cases, Monkey resorts to trickery to retrieve the physical staff from their respective mountain strongholds.

5) One section of Mulian’s tale reads: “With one shake of his staff, the bars and locks fell from the black walls, / On the second shake, the double leaves of the main gate [of hell] flew open” (Mair, 1994, p. 1113).

6) The idea of sentient weapons is certainly not unique to Journey to the West considering that the ancient Chinese ascribed souls to noted swords. For example, Yuan poet Jia Penglai (賈蓬萊, c. mid-14th-c.) described famed Spring and Autumn period blacksmith Ou Yezi‘s (歐冶子) treasure swords Longyuan (龍淵, a.k.a. Longquan, 龍泉) and Tai’e (泰阿/太阿) as mated lovers who pine for each other when separated and even leap from the scabbard to seek out their beloved (Lee & Wiles, 2015, pp. 161-163).

Sources:

Elvin, M. (2004). The Retreat of the Elephants: An Environmental History of China. New Haven (Conn.): Yale university press.

Lee, L. X. H., & Wiles, S. (2015). Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Women: Tang Through Ming: 618-1644. Abingdon: Routledge.

Mair, V. H. (1994). Transformation Text on Mahamaudgalyayana Rescuing his Mother From the Underworld With Pictures, One Scroll, With Preface In V. Mair (Ed.), The Columbia Anthology of Traditional Chinese Literature (pp. 1094-1127). New York: Columbia University Press.

Wu, C., & Yu, A. C. (2012). The Journey to the West: Vol. 1-4. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press.