Tag Xiyouji

The Past Life Biography of Zhu Bajie

Jim R. McClanahan Leave a comment

Last updated: 04-09-2025

A twitter user asked me in late 2024 where Zhu Bajie (豬八戒; fig. 1) learned his “36 transformations” (sanshiliu ban bianhua, 三十六般變化). I told them that chapters 19 and 85 of Journey to the West (Xiyouji, 西遊記; “JTTW” hereafter) contain biographical poems, one of which explains his internal alchemy (neidan, 内丹) training under an immortal and ascension to godhood. I suggested that his past human life learned the magic changes during this time, but after answering the question, it dawned on me that many people may not be aware of these verses. I have, therefore, decided to post and analyze said poems for the benefit of my readers.

This is the second of three articles where I will present info about the disciples’ lives prior to the main events of JTTW. My next article will follow with Sha Wujing‘s (沙悟净) poem. Click here to read the first post about the White Dragon Horse (Bai longma, 白龍馬). These are meant to compliment my previous essay about Sun Wukong (孫悟空).

(On a related note, see here for the oldest known depictions of Zhu Bajie. They come from 14th-century Korea!)

Fig. 1 – A novel accurate depiction of the Tang Monk’s disciples, including our hog hero (top left) (larger version). Artwork by @真·迪绝人 (see here and here).

Table of Contents

1. The Poems

The novel actually presents two contradictory verses on the origins of our beloved pig-monster. One (ch. 19) portrays him as a human-turned-immortal commander of heavenly forces, while the other (ch. 85) alludes to him being a powerful hog-spirit given celestial rank.

1.1. Chapter 19

This poem is chock-full of internal alchemical jargon, so I’m placing explanatory notes just below the blockquote to save readers from having to scroll to the very bottom of the article every time a new concept is mentioned.

My mind was dim since the time of youth;
Always I loved my indolence and sloth.
Neither nursing nature nor seeking the Real,
I passed my days deluded and confused.
I met a true immortal suddenly
Who sat and spoke to me of cold and heat. [A]
‘Repent,’ he said, ‘and cease your worldly way:
From taking life accrues a boundless curse.
One day when the Great Limit ends your lot,
For eight woes and three ways you’ll grieve too late!’ 
I listened and turned my will to mend my ways:
I heard, repented, and sought the wondrous rune.
By fate my teacher he became at once,
Pointing to the Heavenly and Earthly Passes. [B]
Taught to forge the Great Pill Nine Times Reversed, [C]
I worked without pause through day and night
To reach Mud-Pill Palace topping my skull [D]
And Jetting-Spring Points on soles of my feet. [E]
With kidney brine flooding the Floral Pool, [F]
My Cinnabar Field was thus warmly nursed. [G]
Baby and Fair Girl mated as yin and yang; [H]
Lead and mercury mixed as sun and moon. [I]
In concord Li-dragon and Kan-tiger used, [J]
The spirit turtle sucked dry the gold crow’s blood. [K]
‘Three flowers joined on top,’ the root reclaimed [L];
‘Five breaths faced their source’ and all freely flowed. [M]
My merit done, I ascended on high,
Met by pairs of immortals from the sky.
Radiant pink clouds arose beneath my feet;
With light, sound frame I faced the Golden Arch.
The Jade Emperor gave a banquet for gods
Who sat in rows according to their ranks.
Made a marshal of the Celestial Stream,
I took command of both sailors and ships.
Because Queen Mother gave the Peaches Feast
When she met her guests at the Jasper Pool
My mind turned hazy for I got dead drunk,
A shameless rowdy reeling left and right.
Boldly I barged into Vast Cold Palace
Where the charming fairy received me in.
When I saw her face that would snare one’s soul,
My carnal itch of old could not be stopped!
Without regard for manners or for rank,
I grabbed Miss Chang’e asking her to bed.
For three or four times she rejected me:
Hiding east and west, she was sore annoyed.
My passion sky-high I roared like thunder,
Almost toppling the arch of Heaven’s gate.
Inspector General told the Emperor Jade;
I was destined that day to meet my fate.
The Vast Cold completely enclosed airtight
Left me no way to run or to escape.
Then I was caught by the various gods,
Undaunted still, for wine was in my heart.
Bound and taken to see the Emperor Jade,
By law I should have been condemned to death.
It was Venus the Gold Star, Mr. Li,
Who left the ranks and knelt to beg for me.
My punishment changed to two thousand blows,
My flesh was torn; my bones did almost crack.
Alive! I was banished from Heaven’s gate
To make my home beneath the Fuling Mount.
An errant womb’s my sinful destination: Stiff-Bristle Hog’s my worldly appellation!” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, pp. 378-379).

自小生來心性拙，貪閑愛懶無休歇。
不曾養性與修真，混沌迷心熬日月。
忽然閑裡遇真仙，就把寒溫坐下說。
勸我回心莫墮凡，傷生造下無邊孽。
有朝大限命終時，八難三途悔不喋。
聽言意轉要修行，聞語心回求妙訣。
有緣立地拜為師，指示天關並地[關]闕。
得傳九轉大還丹，工夫晝夜無時輟。
上至頂門泥丸宮，下至腳板湧泉穴。
周流腎水入華池，丹田補得溫溫熱。
嬰兒姹女配陰陽，鉛汞相投分日月。
離龍坎虎用調和，靈龜吸盡金烏血。
三花聚頂得歸根，五氣朝元通透徹。
功圓行滿卻飛昇，天仙對對來迎接。
朗然足下彩雲生，身輕體健朝金闕。
玉皇設宴會群仙，各分品級排班列。
敕封元帥管天河，總督水兵稱憲節。
只因王母會蟠桃，開宴瑤池邀眾客。
那時酒醉意昏沉，東倒西歪亂撒潑。
逞雄撞入廣寒宮，風流仙子來相接。
見他容貌挾人魂，舊日凡心難得滅。
全無上下失尊卑，扯住嫦娥要陪歇。
再三再四不依從，東躲西藏心不悅。
色膽如天叫似雷，險些震倒天關闕。
糾察靈官奏玉皇，那日吾當命運拙。
廣寒圍困不通風，進退無門難得脫。
卻被諸神拿住我，酒在心頭還不怯。
押赴靈霄見玉皇，依律問成該處決。
多虧太白李金星，出班俯顖親言說。
改刑重責二千鎚，肉綻皮開骨將折。
放生遭貶出天關，福陵山下圖家業。
我因有罪錯投胎，俗名喚做豬剛鬣。(source)

Footnotes:

A) “[C]old and heat,” (riyue, 日月; lit: “sun and moon”) refers to respective yang and yin energies (Pregadio, 2025p; see also Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 527 n. 2).

B) The original Chinese, “天關並地闕” (tianguan bing dique, or “heavenly passes and earthly watchtowers(?)”), is a likely typo for “天關並地關” (tianguan bing diguan, or “heavenly and earthly passes”). These respectively refer to the head and feet (Pregadio, 2025d, 2025s). I’ve therefore altered Yu’s (Wu & Yu, 2012) translation.

C) The “Great Pill [i.e. Elixir] Nine Times Reversed” (jiuzhuan da huandan, 九轉大還丹) was originally an external alchemical process where a concoction of toxic elements was purified over successive firings in a crucible to create a drug of immortality (see section 3.1. of this article). However, the term was coopted by later proponents of internal alchemy, who associated the ingestion and circulation of immortality-bestowing cosmic energies within pathways between bodily organs with a complex five phases-influenced numerology (Pregadio, 2025b, 2025n). Needham (1954, as cited in Wu & Yu, 2012) adds that it refers “to a chhi [qi, pneumatic vitality, breath] or substance generated by techniques purposefully within the human body which would bring about a reversion of the tissues from an ageing state to an infantile state” (vo. 1, p. 527 n. 4).

D) The “Mud-Pill Palace” (niwan gong, 泥丸宮) is a name for the upper cinnabar field in the head (Pregadio, 2025m; Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 528 n. 6).

E) The “Jetting-Spring Points” (yongquan xue, 湧泉穴) are pressure points on the bottom of the feet (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 528 n. 7).

F) Yu (Wu & Yu, 2012) explains that spiritual energies contained in the kidneys (which are associated with the water element) can be directed to different parts of the practitioner’s body, including a spot under the tongue, the “Floral pool” (huachi, 華池) (vol. 1, p. 528 n. 8; see also Pregadio, 2025r). While this is no doubt the correct answer, it’s important to note that internal alchemy also uses the term Floral pool to refer to true yang energy inside yin (Pregadio, 2025h). The corresponding term is “spirit water” (shenshui, 神水), which denotes true yin energy inside yang—think of the white and black dots inside of the Taiji symbol (Pregadio, 2025h). Therefore, the poem’s original Chinese “腎水入華池” (shenshui ru huachi, or “kidney brine flooding the floral pool”) could also be a reference to the similarly-sounding phrase “神水入華池” (shenshui ru huachi, or “spirit water flooding the floral pool), or the mixture of yang and yin, respectively.

G) The “Cinnabar Field” (dantian, 丹田) is one of three spiritual centers in the body, which is located between 1.3 to 3.6 Chinese inches (cun, 寸; 1 = 1.25 in/3.18 cm) below (or behind) the belly button. The Cinnabar Field is believed to store cosmic/bodily energies, that when circulated and refined, produce an immortal alchemical embryo—i.e. a fledgling immortal spirit avatar (Pregadio, 2025c; see also Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 528 n. 9). And “warmly nursed” (bu de wenwen’re, 補得溫溫熱) may refer to “nourishing warmly” (wenyang, 溫養), or the process of “gestati[ng] the alchemical embryo” (Pregadio, 2025t).

H) The “Baby and Fair Girl” (ying’er chanu, 嬰兒姹女) are anthropomorphic personas of yang and yin energy, respectively (Pregadio, 2025a, 2025w; see also Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 528 n. 10).

I) The elemental and celestial imagery of “lead and mercury” (qian gong/hong, 鉛汞) and “sun and moon” (riyue, 日月) refer to yang and yin energies, respectively (Pregadio, 2025g, 2025o, 2025p).

J) The third eight trigram figure, Li (離/☲), is associated with dragons (long, 龍), and both symbolize yang energy. The sixth figure, Kan (坎/☵), is associated with tigers (hu, 虎), and both symbolize yin energy (fig. 2) (Pregadio, 2025j, 2025k, 2025l; see also Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 529 n. 11).

K) Yu (Wu & Yu, 2012) suggests that “turtle” (gui, 龜) “may be another name for the dark liquid of the kidneys” (vol. 1, p. 529 n. 12). He continues, “[T]he gold crow indicates the sun or the heart. The line refers to the union of yin and yang through the absorption of yang energy by yin” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 529 n. 12). While I agree that this refers to the mixing of said energies, it’s important to note, however, that turtles are usually paired with “snakes” (she, 蛇), both being anthropomorphic symbols of jing-essence and qi-breath (精氣), respectively (Pregadio, 2025f). Additionally, the “gold crow” (jinwu, 金烏), an anthropomorphic symbol of true yin inside yang energy, is normally paired with the “jade rabbit” (yutu, 玉兔), an anthropomorphic symbol of true yang inside yin (Pregadio, 2025i, 2025y). Similarly, “blood” (xue, 血) represents true yin inside of yang (Pregadio, 2025v).

L) The “Three flowers” (sanhua, 三花) is another name for jing-essence, qi-breath, and shen-spirit (精氣神), three important bio-spiritual substances/energies. These must be “joined on top” (juding, 聚頂), or concentrated in the head (the upper cinnabar field) during the internal alchemical process (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 529 n. 13; see also Pregadio, 2025q). This leads to the “root [being] reclaimed” (guigen, 歸根), which refers to “[g]oing back to the root and returning to the mandate” (guigen fuming, 歸根復命), or achieving immortality (Pregadio, 2025e).

M) Yu (Wu & Yu, 2012) explains, “Five breaths … wuqi chaoyuan 五氣朝元, refers to the pneumatic vitality, qi, of the five viscera (heart, liver, spleen, lungs, and kidneys) in harmonious balance” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 529 n. 14). A related view is that said viscera are synced with bio-spiritual substances or mental concepts—ie. hun/liver, jing-essence/kidneys, spirit/heart, po/lungs, intention/spleen—when a practitioner has learned to quiet their senses and still their body (Pregadio, 2025u).

Fig. 2 – An internal alchemy diagram of a Daoist cultivator circulating yang and yin energies, which are respectively represented by the eight trigrams figures ☲ (Li, 離) and ☵ (Kan, 坎) and the elements fire and water (larger version). Image found here. I believe it originally comes from the Anthology of Immortals of Complete Perfection (Quanzhen qunxian ji, 全真群仙集, 1483).

1.2. Explanation

Zhu was originally a lazy, aimless man, but he encountered a celestial who told him to mend his ways, or else he would be reborn in the lower three Buddhist realms of hell, hungry ghosts, or animals, making it impossible for him to hear the Buddha’s teachings (an example of the novel’s syncretic unity). Upon repenting, he studied under the immortal, learning the art of internal alchemy, which involved absorbing and circulating vital energies around his body. Once he had attained transcendence, he rose on clouds to be escorted by other celestials into the heavenly realm, where he was appointed marshal of the heavenly navy, which sailed the cosmic river of the Milky Way Galaxy.

But his great achievement was tainted when he got drunk at the Queen Mother’s peach banquet and, being aroused by Chang’e’s dazzling beauty (fig. 3), chased her to the moon palace. He propositioned the goddess for sex several times, but her refusals sent him into a powerful rage. The protector deity Wang Lingguan reported this to the Jade Emperor, who had the moon palace surrounded by heavenly soldiers. The Marshal was soon captured and sentenced to death, but the planet Venus asked for lenience, leading to Zhu’s past life being beaten 2,000 times and banished from the heavenly realm. His divine spirit sought reincarnation in the mortal realm below, but an accident of fate led to his rebirth as a pig-spirit. He later took the name “Stiff-Bristles Hog” (Zhu Ganglie, 豬剛鬣) based on his porcine appearance.

Zhu Bajie-Chang'e stamp

Fig. 3 – A Taiwanese stamp reading, “Drunkenly playing Chang’e” (Zuixi Change, 醉戲嫦娥) (larger version). It’s likely meant to serve as a visual reminder of Zhu’s early story arc involving the events leading to his banishment from heaven and rebirth as a hog-spirit.

1.3. Chapter 85

With huge mouth and fangs I’ve great magic might.
Emperor Jade made me Marshal Heavenly Reeds.
The boss of Heaven’s eighty-thousand marines,
Comforts and joys I had in the halls of light.
Because I mocked a palace maiden when I was drunk
And flaunted my strength at a wrongful hour
One shove of my snout toppled the Dipper–Ox Palace;
Queen Mother’s divine herbs I then devoured
Emperor Jade pounded me two thousand times
And banished me from the Three Heavens realm.
Though told to nourish my primal spirit,
I became again a monster down below.
About to marry at the Village Gao, I met Brother Sun—’twas my wretched fate!
Quite defeated by his golden-hooped rod,
I had to bow and take the Buddhist vow:
A coolie who bears luggage and leads the horse,
Who owes, in former life, the Tang Monk a debt!
This iron-legged Heavenly Reed‘s name is Zhu;
And my religious name is Zhu Eight Rules” (based on Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 4, pp. 149-150).

巨口獠牙神力大，玉皇陞我天蓬帥。
掌管天河八萬兵，天宮快樂多自在。
只因酒醉戲宮娥，那時就把英雄賣。
一嘴拱倒斗牛宮，吃了王母靈芝菜。
玉皇親打二千鎚，把吾貶下三天界。
教吾立志養元神，下方卻又為妖怪。
正在高莊喜結親，命低撞著孫兄在。
金箍棒下受他降，低頭才把沙門拜。
背馬挑包做夯工，前生少了唐僧債。
鐵腳天蓬本姓豬，法名喚作豬八戒。(source)

1.4. Explanation

He was originally a pig-spirit with sharp tusks and powerful magic (fig. 4) who was appointed Marshal Tianpeng, commander of the 80,000-strong celestial navy. He enjoyed his new life among the godly ranks but later got drunk (at the Queen Mother’s banquet) and performed a number of forbidden deeds: mistreating a moon goddess, knocking over the Dipper-Ox Palace, and eating the Queen mother’s magic mushrooms. This resulted in a punishment of 2,000 strokes and banishment from heaven, with the added instruction to cultivate his spirit while on earth. But he once again became a monster, and at some point,  he took a wife in Gao Village. He was subsequently defeated by Monkey and forced to take the Buddhist vows, serving as Tripitaka’s disciple and luggage handler. His discipleship may have been the karmic result of a good deed that his master performed for him in a past life.

Fig. 4 – Zhu’s giant boar form from the manhua Journey to the West (Xiyouji, 西遊記) (larger version).

2. Which is True?

Both poems provide certain information that is consistent with internal narrative details, such as:

  • Zhu originally serving as Marshal Heavenly Reed (Tianpeng yuanshuai, 天蓬元帥; lit: “Marshal of Heavenly Mugwort“), commander of the 80,000 soldiers of the celestial navy (and a historical deity) (fig. 5)
  • Getting drunk at the peach festival and harassing a moon goddess
  • Being beaten 2,000 times as punishment and exiled to the mortal world
  • Mistakenly being reborn as Stiff-Bristles Hog, a bloodthirsty pig-monster in Fuling Mountain (Fuling shan, 福陵山)
  • Eventually taking a wife in Gao Village (Gao zhuang, 高莊)
  • Being defeated by Sun Wukong
  • Becoming Zhu Bajie, a Buddhist disciple of Tripitaka
  • Acting as a coolie carrying the luggage

But the real question is: was Zhu originally human or a pig-spirit? I think the first poem is likely true (within the narrative) given the amount of detail that he provides about the alchemical processes that eventually led to his immortality and ascension to godhood. The second poem is cursory in comparison and seems like something that was made up on the spot to embellish his might—perhaps influenced by stories of Sun Wukong’s past havoc in heaven—or monstrous pedigree in the face of a demonic opponent (refer to the events in chapter 85). One detail pointing to this is his claim of knocking over the “Dipper-Ox Palace” (Douniu gong, 斗牛宮), which references the stars of the Southern Dipper and Ox mansions (Stephenson, 2008, p. 517). He’s therefore asserting that he can collapse entire constellations. That’s definitely nonsense as Zhu is often overpowered and defeated in battle, even by groups of little fiends (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, pp. 102-103, for example).

Fig. 5 – A historical painting of “Great Marshal Tianpeng” (Tianpeng da yuanshui, 天蓬大元帥) from the Ink Treasures of Wu Daozi (Daozi mobao, 道子墨寶, 13th-century), (larger version). Image altered for clarity.

3. Additional Info

The poems actually leave out several details about Zhu’s past and current lives.

  1. The Chang’e (嫦娥) mentioned above is not the singular goddess but one of many such named divine maidens in the entourage of the “Star Lord of Supreme Yin” (Taiyin xingjun, 太陰星君), the aged devi of the moon. [1]
  2. He mauled his sow mother and piglet siblings to death sometime after his mistaken rebirth in Fuling Mountain (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 212).
  3. His first wife, “Second Elder Sister Mao” (Mao erjie, 夘二姐), [2] a likely rabbit spirit, [3] was the original owner of his Cloudy Paths Cave (Yunzhan dong, 雲棧洞) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 212). But sadly, she died less than a year after their marriage (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 212). Their tragic love story would be good fodder for fanfiction.
  4. He was invited by the Crow’s Nest Chan Master (Wuchao chanshi, 烏巢禪師), a Buddhist sage, to practice austerities, but he passed on the opportunity.
  5. Years prior to being called Zhu Bajie, he submitted to Buddhism at the behest of the bodhisattva Guanyin and was given the religious name “Zhu Wuneng” (豬悟能, “Pig Who Awakens to Power”) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 213).
  6. Sometime after adopting a vegetarian diet, [4] he magically transformed into a “stout, swarthy [human] fellow” (hei pang han, 黑胖漢) in order to fraudulently arrange a marriage with his second wife, “Green Orchid” (Cui’lan, 翠蘭), a maiden from Gao Village in Tibet (Wusizang, 烏斯藏) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 372). [5]
  7. The Gao family grew rich from his supernatural labors in the field (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, pp. 375 and 381).
  8. But he was abusive to his wife, locking her inside a back building and not allowing her to see her family for half a year (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 372).
  9. Monkey tricked Zhu by magically taking his wife’s form and hiding in a dark room (fig. 6), [6] but he later overpowered the hog-spirit in combat (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 380). Zhu eventually submitted when he learned Sun was escorting the scripture pilgrim to India (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 384).

Lastly, I would like to suggest that the immortal teacher of Zhu’s past life also taught him divine military arts—like Master Ghost Valley taught Sun Bin in vernacular fiction—because why else would a random person be given command of the entire heavenly navy? I headcanon that he was once a brilliant military strategist and commander, but his mistaken reincarnation as a hog made him very dim and lazy.

Fig. 6 – A woodblock print from the original 1592 edition of JTTW reading, “The fake Green Orchid outsmarts Stiff-Bristles Hog” (Jia Cui’lan zhinong Zhu Ganglie, 假翠蘭智㺯(弄)豬剛鬣) (larger version). See page 228 of the linked PDF. I’m intrigued by the pig-spirit’s failed human transformation.

4. Updates

Update: 03-04-25

Friend of the blog NingadudeXx has drawn a picture of Zhu Bajie as his past life, Marshal Tianpeng (fig. 7), based on the god’s historical iconography (refer back to fig. 5).

Fig. 7 – Zhu Bajie as Marshal Tianpeng (larger version).

Update: 04-09-25

I forgot to mention that Zhu has some medical knowledge. In chapter 41, for example, he performs life-saving massage to resuscitate a dead Sun Wukong:

With a chuckle, Eight Rules [Zhu Bajie] said, “Brother, stop crying. This ape is pretending to be dead, just to scare us. Feel him a little and see if there’s any warmth left in his breast.” “The whole body has turned cold,” said Sha Monk [Sha Wujing]. “Even if there were a little warmth left, how could you revive him?” Eight Rules said, “If he is capable of seventy-two transformations, he has seventy-two lives. Listen, you stretch out his legs while I take care of him.” Sha Monk indeed straightened Pilgrim’s legs while Eight Rules lifted his head and straightened his upper torso. They then pushed his legs up and folded them around the knees before raising him into a sitting position. Rubbing his hands together until they were warm, Eight Rules covered Pilgrim’s seven apertures and began to apply a Chan method [anmo chanfa, 按摩禪法] of massage on him (emphasis added). The cold water, you see, had had such a traumatic effect on Pilgrim that his breath was caught in his cinnabar field and he could not utter a sound. He was lucky, therefore, to have all that rubbing, squeezing, and kneading by Eight Rules, for in a moment his breath went through the three passes, invaded the bright hall, and burst through his apertures. and burst through his apertures. “O Master,” he [Monkey] began to say (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, p. 232).

八戒笑道：「兄弟莫哭。這猴子佯推死，嚇我們哩。你摸他摸，胸前還有一點熱氣沒有？」沙僧道：「渾身都冷了，就有一點兒熱氣，怎的就得回生？」八戒道：「他有七十二般變化，就有七十二條性命。你扯著腳，等我擺佈他。」真個那沙僧扯著腳，八戒扶著頭，把他拽個直，推上腳來，盤膝坐定。八戒將兩手搓熱，仵住他的七竅，使一個按摩禪法。原來那行者被冷水逼了，氣阻丹田，不能出聲。卻幸得八戒按摸揉擦，須臾間，氣透三關，轉明堂，沖開孔竅，叫了一聲：「師父啊！」

Also, in chapter 69, he argues with Wukong about the attributes and usages of a medicinal ingredient:

“The flavour of badou [巴豆],” said Eight Rules, “is slightly acrid; its nature is hot and poisonous. Able to pare down the hard and the accumulated, it will therefore sweep out the submerged chills of one’s internal cavities. Able to bore through clottings and impediments, it will therefore facilitate the paths of water and grain. This is a warrior who can break down doors and passes, and it should be used lightly” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 274).

八戒道：「巴豆味辛，性熱有毒。削堅積，蕩肺腑之沉寒；通閉塞，利水穀之道路。乃斬關奪門之將，不可輕用。」

This might suggest that Bajie also learned these skills from his immortal master.

Endnotes:

1) Chapter 95 explains that the seemingly singular goddess Chang’e is actually a collective, and also that one of them was the maiden that Zhu’s former life had harassed in the past:

As they stared into the sky, they heard the Great Sage Sun crying out in a loud voice: “Your Majesty of India, please ask your queen and concubines to come out and look. Beneath this treasure canopy is the Star Lord of Supreme Yin of the Moon Palace, and the immortal sisters on both sides of her* are the Chang’e goddesses inside the moon (emphasis added). This little jade hare is the false princess of your household; she has now revealed her true form.”

The king hurriedly assembled the queen, his concubines, the palace maidens, and gaily-attired girls to bow to the sky and worship. He himself and the Tang Monk also expressed their thanks toward the sky by bowing low. All the households in the city also set up incense tables and kowtowed, chanting the name of Buddha.

As they looked up into the air, Zhu Eight Rules was moved to lust. Unable to contain himself, he leaped into the air and embraced a rainbow-skirted immortal, crying, “Sister, you and I are old acquaintances! Let’s go play!” (emphasis added) (based on Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 4, p. 303).

眾擡頭看處，又聞得孫大聖厲聲高叫道：「天竺陛下，請出你那皇后、嬪妃看者：這寶幢下乃月宮太陰星君，兩邊的仙妹是月裡嫦娥。這個玉兔兒卻是你家的假公主，今現真相也。」那國王急召皇后、嬪妃與宮娥、綵女等眾朝天禮拜，他和唐僧及多官亦俱望空拜謝。滿城中各家各戶，也無一人不設香案，叩頭念佛。正此觀看處，豬八戒動了慾心，忍不住，跳在空中，把霓裳仙子抱住道：「姐姐，我與你是舊相識，我和你耍子兒去也。」

* Yu (Wu & Yu, 2012) calls the Star Lord of Supreme Yin “him” in his original translation (vol. 4, p. 303), but the deity has been portrayed as a woman for centuries. See, for instance, her depiction (2nd from the top left) in the Ink Treasures of Wu Daozi (Daozi mobao, 道子墨寶, 13th-century).

2) Yu (Wu & Yu, 2012) translates her name as “Second Elder Sister Egg” (Luan erjie, 卵二姐)” (vol. 1, p. 212). But this is based on a transcription error—i.e. 夘 (Mao; original edition) vs 卵 (Luan; modern edition).

3) The relationship of Zhu and Second Elder Sister Mao references the synergy between the elemental and animal aspects of the 12 earthly branches—i.e. Mao (夘; yin wood/rabbit) and Hai (亥; yang wood/pig) complete each other.

4) His vegetarian diet is mentioned in chapters 18 and 19 (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, pp. 372, 384, and 386).

5) Yu (Wu & Yu, 2012) translates “烏斯藏” (Wusizang), the location of Gao village, as the “Kingdom of Qoco” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 369). However, this phrase actually refers to Dbus-gtsang, or Tibet (Zhang, 2023, pp. 32-33; Wilkinson, 2000, p. 728).

6) I’ve previously suggested that this episode was influenced by a scene from chapter five of the Water Margin (Shuihu zhuan, 水滸傳, c. 1400). Both feature:

  • Young, beautiful daughters in unwanted relationships (Green Orchid vs the unnamed maiden).
  • Elderly fathers worried for their child (Mr. Gao vs Mr. Liu).
  • Evil spirit-turned-inhumanly strong, hot-tempered, heavy metal staff-wielding martial monks who come to their aid (Sun Wukong vs Lu Zhishen).
  • The monk takes the place of the woman in a darkened room.
  • The villain is beaten (Zhu Bajie vs Zhou Tong) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, pp. 374-377; Shi & Luo, 1993/2021, pp. 109-113).

Sources:

Pregadio, F. (2025a). cha nü 姹女 (chanü). In Dictionary of Taoist Internal Alchemy (pp. 19-20). Leiden: Brill.

Pregadio, F. (2025b). da huan dan 大還丹 (da huandan). In Dictionary of Taoist Internal Alchemy (pp. 32-33). Leiden: Brill.

Pregadio, F. (2025c). dan tian 丹田 (dantian). In Dictionary of Taoist Internal Alchemy (pp. 38-39). Leiden: Brill.

Pregadio, F. (2025d). di guan 地關 (diguan). In Dictionary of Taoist Internal Alchemy (p. 45). Leiden: Brill.

Pregadio, F. (2025e). gui gen fu ming 歸根復命 (guigen fuming). In Dictionary of Taoist Internal Alchemy (p. 78). Leiden: Brill.

Pregadio, F. (2025f). gui she 龜蛇 (guishe). In Dictionary of Taoist Internal Alchemy (p. 78). Leiden: Brill.

Pregadio, F. (2025g). hong 汞. In Dictionary of Taoist Internal Alchemy (p. 86). Leiden: Brill.

Pregadio, F. (2025h). hua chi shen shui 華池神水 (huachi shenshui). In Dictionary of Taoist Internal Alchemy (p. 90). Leiden: Brill.

Pregadio, F. (2025i). jin wu 金烏 (jinwu). In Dictionary of Taoist Internal Alchemy (pp. 124-125). Leiden: Brill.

Pregadio, F. (2025j). kan 坎. In Dictionary of Taoist Internal Alchemy (p. 134). Leiden: Brill.

Pregadio, F. (2025k). li 離. In Dictionary of Taoist Internal Alchemy (pp. 142-143). Leiden: Brill.

Pregadio, F. (2025l). long hu 龍虎 (longhu). In Dictionary of Taoist Internal Alchemy (pp. 154-156). Leiden: Brill.

Pregadio, F. (2025m). ni wan gong 泥丸宮 (niwan gong). In Dictionary of Taoist Internal Alchemy (p. 174). Leiden: Brill.

Pregadio, F. (2025n). qi fan jiu huan 七返九還 (qifan jiuhuan). In Dictionary of Taoist Internal Alchemy (pp. 183-184). Leiden: Brill.

Pregadio, F. (2025o). qian 鉛. In Dictionary of Taoist Internal Alchemy (p. 188). Leiden: Brill.

Pregadio, F. (2025p). ri yue 日月 (riyue). In Dictionary of Taoist Internal Alchemy (pp. 202-203). Leiden: Brill.

Pregadio, F. (2025q). san hua ju ding 三花聚頂 (sanhua juding). In Dictionary of Taoist Internal Alchemy (p. 214). Leiden: Brill.

Pregadio, F. (2025r). shen 腎. In Dictionary of Taoist Internal Alchemy (pp. 230-231). Leiden: Brill.

Pregadio, F. (2025s). tian guan 天關 (tianguan). In Dictionary of Taoist Internal Alchemy (p. 262). Leiden: Brill.

Pregadio, F. (2025t). wen yang 溫養 (wenyang). In Dictionary of Taoist Internal Alchemy (p. 276). Leiden: Brill.

Pregadio, F. (2025u). wu qi chao yuan 五氣朝元 (wuqi chaoyuan). In Dictionary of Taoist Internal Alchemy (pp. 282-283). Leiden: Brill.

Pregadio, F. (2025v). xue 血. In Dictionary of Taoist Internal Alchemy (pp. 321-322). Leiden: Brill.

Pregadio, F. (2025w). ying er 嬰兒 (ying’er) (1). In Dictionary of Taoist Internal Alchemy (pp. 341-342). Leiden: Brill.

Pregadio, F. (2025x). ying er 嬰兒 (ying’er) (2). In Dictionary of Taoist Internal Alchemy (p. 342). Leiden: Brill.

Pregadio, F. (2025y). yu tu 玉兔 (yutu). In Dictionary of Taoist Internal Alchemy (p. 346). Leiden: Brill.

Shi, N., & Luo, G. (2021). Outlaws of the Marsh (Vols. 1-4) (S. Shapiro, Trans.). Beijing: Foreign Languages Press. (Original work published 1993)

Stephenson, F. R. (2008). Lunar Mansions in Chinese Astronomy. In H. Selin (Ed.), Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures (pp. 516-518) (2nd ed.). Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Wilkinson, E. P. (2000). Chinese History: A Manual. United Kingdom: Harvard University Asia Center.

Wu, C., & Yu, A. C. (2012). The Journey to the West (Vols. 1-4) (Rev. ed.). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press.

Zhang, F. (2023). The Eastern Land and the Western Heaven: Qing Cosmopolitanism and Its Translation in Tibet in the Eighteenth Century. United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis.

Why Did the White Dragon Horse Burn His Father’s Pearls in Journey to the West?

Jim R. McClanahan 9 Comments

Last updated: 03-03-2026

This is the first of three articles where I will present info about the disciples’ lives prior to the main events of Journey to the West (Xiyouji, 西遊記, 1592; “JTTW” hereafter). This piece will focus on the White Dragon Horse (Bai longma, 白龍馬). The next two will focus on Zhu Bajie (here) and Sha Wujing. These are meant to compliment my previous essay on Sun Wukong.

This particular article is based on a question put to me by a reader in late-January 2023:

I was wondering about Ao Lie’s* punishment. I know that he burned a pearl from the Jade Emperor (I think?), but I’m not exactly clear as to why he did that. Was it on accident or in anger, or is there a reason given?

* Ao Lie (敖烈) is a modern name for the dragon that comes from a live action TV show called Journey to the West Afterstory (Xiyouji houzhuan, 西游记后传, 2000). [1] JTTW chapter 15 actually calls him Yulong san taizi (玉龍三太子), or “Third Prince Jade Dragon.”

What follows is a formatted and expanded version of my reply. [2]

Table of Contents

1. Explanation

The Jade Dragon briefly describes the details of his crime to the Bodhisattva Guanyin in JTTW chapter eight:

Because I inadvertently set fire to the palace and burned some of the pearls therein, my father the king [Ao Run] memorialized to the Court of Heaven and charged me with grave disobedience. The Jade Emperor hung me in the sky and gave me three hundred lashes, and I shall be executed in a few days. I beg the Bodhisattva to save me (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 213).

… 因縱火燒了殿上明珠，我父王表奏天庭，告了忤逆。玉帝把我吊在空中，打了三百，不日遭誅。望菩薩搭救搭救。」

However, despite Yu’s (Wu & Yu, 2012) translation, the original Chinese doesn’t include a word meaning “inadvertently.” In fact, zonghuo (縱火) means “to set fire” or “arson,” meaning that the Third Prince did it on purpose—for whatever selfish reasons. Unfortunately, the novel doesn’t go into anymore detail.

2. Possible Origin

I suggest that this episode is intended to explain the “dragon chasing a jewel” (ganzhu longwen, 趕珠龍紋) motif in Chinese art. The jewel is shown emitting flames, and the dragon looks as if it’s frozen in the heavens, just like the Jade Dragon Prince was (fig. 1).

Fig. 1 – A Qing-era plate showing the dragon chasing a flaming jewel motif (larger version). Image found here. I like to think the title of this piece is “SHIT SHIT SHIT SHIT!!!! MY DAD’S GONNA KILL MEEE!!!!”

3. Significance

The pearl-burning incident is important because it directly leads to Jade Dragon joining the pilgrimage to India. After being rescued by Guanyin, he’s recruited and sent to wait for the Tang Monk “in a deep mountain stream” (shenjian zhi zhong, 深澗之中), and he official joins the quest in chapter 15 following a brief confrontation with Monkey at the specifically named Eagle Grief Stream (Yingchou jian, 鷹愁澗) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, pp. 214 and 327-328).

Here’s the scene where he is transformed into a horse:

The Bodhisattva went up to the little dragon and plucked off the shining pearls hanging around his neck. She then dipped her willow branch into the sweet dew in her vase and sprinkled it all over his body; blowing a mouthful of magic breath on him, she cried, “Change!” The dragon at once changed into a horse with hair of exactly the same color and quality as that of the horse he had swallowed (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 328).

菩薩上前，把那小龍的項下明珠摘了，將楊柳枝蘸出甘露，往他身上拂了一拂，吹口仙氣，喝聲叫：「變！」那龍即變做他原來的馬匹毛片。

4. Updates

Update: 01-04-25

It just dawned on me that Jade Dragon’s portrayal as a mischief-causing third prince mirrors the early life of Third Prince Nezha (San taizi Nezha, 三太子哪吒; Nezha san taizi, 哪吒三太子), whose devilry leads to him battling and killing the dragon Third Prince Ao Bing (San taizi Ao Bing, 三太子敖丙) in Investiture of the Gods (Fengshen yanyi, 封神演義, c. 1620) chapter twelve (Gu, 2000).

Update: 01-05-25

Friend of the blog Ryin-Silverfish has reminded me that the Third Dragon Prince is also associated with fire in the early-Ming JTTW Zaju play that predates the standard 1592 edition of the novel. He appears in “Act Seven: Mucha Sells a Horse” (Diqi chu Mucha shouma, 第七出 木叉售馬) as the “Third Prince Fire Dragon” (Huolong san taizi, 火龍三太子), who is sentenced to death for not delivering the full amount of rain to a given area as ordered by the heavenly court. And after being pardoned, he is transformed into a horse just like his novel counterpart.

Update: 03-03-26

Chinese art historian Jin Xu has posted on twitter about pottery found in a 14th-century shipwreck from Singapore. One is a blue and white dish with a lovely example of the dragon chasing a flaming jewel motif (fig. 2). I like it more than the example from above.

Fig. 2 – The dragon dish (larger version). See figure one in the June 2025 report.

Note:

1) Thank you to the good folks over at the JTTW Discord for connecting the name to a TV show, and thank you to reader innerdreamily6dcc2c3a93 for giving me the specific name.

2) I actually added this material as a January 2023 update to a previous article, but I decided to split it off into this new post.

Source:

Gu, Z. (2000). Creation of the Gods (Vols. 1-4). Beijing: New World Press.

Wu, C., & Yu, A. C. (2012). The Journey to the West (Vols. 1-4). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press.

Review: The Second Journey (2024) by Joel Bigman

Jim R. McClanahan Leave a comment

Note: I was not paid for this review.

Format: Ebook ($6.99 USD) and paperback (280 pages; $19.99 to $21.99 USD) [1]
Publisher: Earnshaw Books Ltd.
Release date: December 17th, 2024
Purchase links:

1. Introduction

Over two decades ago I was inspired by Journey to the West (Xiyouji, 西遊記, 1592 CE; “JTTW” hereafter) to begin writing my own Chinese fantasy about an itinerant disciple of Sun Wukong battling monsters across ancient China. However, this all changed when I learned about the Kaifeng Jews, a historical enclave of sinified Israelite descendants who have lived in the Middle Kingdom for nearly a millennium. This convergence of two different cultures immediately captured my imagination, leading to the main character becoming the son of a founding member of the community. He would go on to brave supernatural events and creatures while serving as a soldier under General Yue Fei (1103–1142 CE), [2] eventually becoming a Jewish sage and powerful exorcist later in life. However, the book ultimately didn’t materialize as I came to realize that I was much better at coming up with research-based story ideas than actually writing narratives. Thus, my dreams of a Chinese-Jewish fantasy novel never came to pass.

But fret not, for Joel Bigman has written The Second Journey (2024), a modern sequel to JTTW, which is being touted as “The World’s First Chinese-Jewish Historical Fantasy.” [3] The story is framed as the contents of a lost 7th-century CE scroll discovered inside a buried jar while city planners investigate a watermain leak in modern Xi’an, Shaanxi province, China. A subsequent translation of the Aramaic text reveals a second, unknown journey undertaken by Xuanzang, Sun Wukong, and Zhu Bajie (but not Sha Wujing or the Dragon Horse) five years after their original return. This new quest is initiated by the Bodhisattva Guanyin, who requests that the Tang Monk seek knowledge outside of China for the benefit of the Kaifeng Jews, who have assimilated so much into Chinese culture that they’ve forgotten how to read their Hebrew scriptures. The trio travels past India and into Central Asia, where they procure the services of “Bear” (a.k.a. the “Second Samson“), a supernaturally strong Jew with knowledge of the various routes and personages of Historic Palestine. Together with a mysterious donkey, they travel from town to town looking for a holy man willing to return to China and become the Kaifeng Jewish community’s new teacher, thereby reigniting their religious life. Bear arranges for the pilgrims to meet and stay with several such holy men—allowing them to learn Hebrew and Jewish culture and religious history along the way—but the search for the right candidate is quite difficult.

Cover art by the wonderful Yuyu (与鱼), a freelance illustrator. You can see other examples of their work here.

2. Analysis

2.1. Compare and contrast

How does The Second Journey compare to JTTW? Recall that the original is a fictionalized retelling of the historical monk Xuanzang‘s (玄奘, 602–664 CE) journey to India from 627 to 645 (640 to 654 in the novel) (Buswell & Lopez, 2014, pp. 1015-1016; Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 293; vol. 4, p. 374). The set up for the sequel is also based on actual history. The Jewish community of Kaifeng, Henan Province, China is believed to have been founded around the Northern Song Dynasty (960–1127 CE), [4] and after centuries of unchecked assimilation, the enclave became religiously extinct sometime after the last Rabbi with knowledge of Hebrew died around 1800, [5] during the Qing Dynasty (1644–1911 CE). Joel has simply taken some artistic license by setting these events during the Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE). Also, the novel is full of historical Jewish sages and people that Xuanzang and his companions come to meet and/or learn from over the course of their journey. These include Eliezer ben Hurcanus, Yehoshua ben Hananiah, Akiva ben Joseph, Elisha ben Abuyah, Simeon ben Azzai, Simeon ben Zoma, Honi HaMe’agel, Shimon bar Yochai and his son Eleazar ben Shimon, Hillel the Elder, Rav Nachman bar Yaakov and his wife Lady Yalta, Rav Sheshet, Yohanan ben Zakkai, Shimon ben Lakish, Rabbi Tarfon, Judah ha-Nasi, Rabbi Meir and his wife Bruriah, and others. One of my favorite historical moments happens in “Wine,” when Monkey helps an enraged Lady Yalta attain catharsis by prompting her to smash hundreds of casks in a wine cellar after being slighted by her husband’s house guest (Bigman, 2024, pp. 138-140). Another happens in “Mother,” when Sun smashes a vase at the behest of Xuanzang in order to snap grieving disciples out of their ceaseless prayers, which are keeping ailing Rabbi Judah from dying (Bigman, 2024, pp. 165-167). Inserting our heroes into these Talmudic stories is an ingenious way of making the pilgrims feel that much more real, like they are being pulled out of myth and thrust into the real world.

JTTW is full of enlightened beings, gods, immortals, and demons and ghosts that can fly and wield spells and mystic objects for benign or malevolent purposes. The Second Journey also features magic. I can’t continue without first acknowledging that the historical Jews listed above actually lived centuries before Xuanzang was even born—something that informed readers may have already figured out. This means that the story follows a dreamlike timeline where the group magically flows like water between their present, the early Talmudic period (70–638 CE), and the distant Exodus Period, freely interacting with sages, prophets, patriarchs, and even God himself along the way. [6] Some of these Jewish holy men have mystical adventures of their own, such as in “Orchard” when Rabbi Akiva and others fly on a flaming chariot to the “Orchard of mystical knowledge” in order to discuss spiritual matters with wise men-cum-divine beings, or in “Slow Cart” when Sage Honi, a biblical rain-maker, is transported in his dreams to the past events of JTTW chapter 46, where he takes part in a rain-making competition against a Daoist animal-spirit (Bigman, 2024, pp. 56-62 and 99-104). And of course no JTTW story would be complete without Monkey showing off his magic powers. One of the more inventive uses of his abilities happens in a particular chapter where the titanic, golem-like angel Gabriel produces a giant clay sword from his thigh, and Monkey uses the intense spiritual flames inside his divine body to carburize it into a fine steel blade (Bigman, 2024, pp. 79). You’ll have to read the book to see how the weapon is used.

The original story is set in a world where Buddhism, Daoism, and Confucianism live in harmony with one another. The sequel also features such religious pluralism. In “Kaifeng,” Guanyin explains that she is sending the Tang Monk to the Western lands in order to save the Kaifeng Jews from being completely absorbed by Chinese culture. And in order to accomplish this, Xuanzang must bring foreign knowledge back to the Eastern lands, referring to it as “[s]eeds that may grow into something new” (Bigman, 2024, p. 11). As mentioned above, “Orchard” sees Jewish sages travel to a mystical orchard, where they converse with wise country folk, who are in actuality the Jade Emperor and Laozi (Bigman, 2024, pp. 59-62). This implies that even Jewish holy men can benefit from the knowledge of the East. A third example takes the form of the novel’s two-fold world system, where the Eastern and Western lands are two distinct realms overseen by the Jade Emperor and God, respectively. The reader first learns about this partitioned cosmos in “Oven” when Monkey seeks Guanyin’s aid in order to facilitate a biblical miracle:

In the past, you have received help in battling demons, either from myself, or from other celestial beings. But in this case, even the Jade Emperor cannot help you. These [Western] lands are too far away from our realm. You must ask for help from the emperor in a different heaven, in the Far Western Heaven […] He is Olam-Tzu, World-Master. The westerners call him Ribbono Shel Olam. You’ll have to find your own way to his heaven (Bigman, 2024, p. 36).

JTTW is full of humor, my favorite episode being when Monkey tricks three animal-spirits into drinking “elixir” which is actually the disciples’ stinky urine (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, pp. 286-287). BWAHAHAHA!!! The Second Journey also has its funny moments. In “The Other,” we learn our heroes have melodious snores:

Our friends woke up late the following morning; only Xuanzang woke up before noon. There was a whole chorus of snoring, led by the renowned soloist Pigsy, accompanied by Bear, their Foreign Guide, and our dear Monkey (Bigman, 2024, p. 187).

My absolute favorite comical moment happens in “Karma,” when Sage Sheshet warns Zhu that his over indulgence of Sabbath stew will come back to haunt him. And sure enough, after eating eighteen bowls worth, horrible stomach pains wake him from his afternoon nap. This causes him to worry that he has once again become magically pregnant like in chapter 53 of the original. But instead of relying on magic abortion water this time to end his suffering, his problem is solved by ripping nasty, giant farts (Bigman, 2024, pp. 145 and 148-150).

Beyond cultural and religious differences, the only applicable element that contrasts with JTTW is that Historic Palestine is said to be free of monsters (Bigman, 2024, pp. 46 and 109, for example). Monkey does briefly tangle with some biblical baddies in the sequel, but they are separated from the human world and therefore do not pose an immediate threat to the Tang Monk. This lack of action might be a little depressing for fans of the original, but readers should understand that both books serve different purposes. JTTW is chocked full of spirits that act as both merit-building obstacles and cultivation-facilitating illusions of the mind. These act as metaphors for the journey towards Buddhist enlightenment. However, such concepts aren’t needed in The Second Journey since Joel tells me that the point of the book is to introduce readers to Jewish culture and history via the medium of Xuanzang’s quest to find a teacher. Therefore, our heroes spend the majority of the story learning local beliefs and customs, listening to biblical tales, and acting as casual observers of Jewish religious history as it unfolds during their time travels. Entering the book with this knowledge should make it more enjoyable.

2.2. Suggestions

The book’s version of Xuanzang is an amalgam of his historical and literary counterparts. While this generally meshes well within the more realistic context of Historic Palestine, it does cause a problem in one particular instance. In “Bandits,” the pilgrims are accosted on the road by a group of highwaymen, and after their Daoist immortal-looking leader neutralizes Sun, Zhu, and Bear with a magic net, they choose the Tang Monk and a temporary travel companion as sacrifices to the Hindu goddess Durga. But a mysterious, powerful wind sent from heaven causes them to change their minds. The bandit leader is eventually revealed to be a Jew with a shady past who would go on to become a great holy man (Bigman, 2024, pp. 152-156). The problem is that the attempted sacrifice supposedly happened to the historical Xuanzang in India while sailing down the Ganges River (Huili & Shi, 1995, pp. 76-78). Recall that the historical Sage Honi travels back in time to past events from JTTW in “Slow Cart,” but this happens in his dreams. The episode under discussion is different because a historical event from India—which should have already happened to our composit Xuanzang—has been transposed onto Historic Palestine. It’s so out of place that it took me out of the story at that moment. The same can be said about a Daoist Jew leading a group of Hindu bandits in the Levant. I understand that Joel was trying to manufacture tension here, but he could have come up with an original group of bandits, and that way, Xuanzang could liken the experience to the one he had in India years prior. Or better still, the event could be likened to the Tang Monk’s experience in JTTW chapter 56 when Monkey is kicked out of the group for killing brigands, including beheading the wayward son of a local elderly couple (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, pp. 88-90). Perhaps Sun is put into a similar situation in the sequel where he could easily kill, but he doesn’t, thereby showing his master that he has internalized restraint.

And lastly, beyond fixing some minor issues, [7] the book would benefit from adding a glossary or footnotes to explain the names and significance of the various Jewish personages featured in the narrative. Joel told me that he “didn’t want to make it too ‘educational,’ like lecturing at the reader,” but non-Jews like myself who lack an extensive knowledge of Jewish religious history will no doubt be lost without some kind of guide. Having one would, therefore, make the novel far more accessible and enjoyable to a wider audience. As evidence of this, I actually read the book twice for this review, and I found that I enjoyed it more the second time around after having looked up info about the historical people and events.

3. My rating

I give The Second Journey four and a half out of five stars. The book is well-written, with smooth and oftentimes thought-provoking dialogue. The worldbuilding is very creative and yet still respectful to both Jewish beliefs and Chinese mythos. It’s definitely a great way to introduce someone to Jewish culture and religious history via Journey to the West. I highly recommend it!

Notes:

1) I read the Kindle version for this review. My thanks to Joel for giving me an advanced copy.

2) This was based on Weisz (2006), who shows that the Kaifeng Jews reference Yue Fei’s famous patriotic back tattoo, “Serve the country with utmost loyalty” (Jinzhang baoguo, 盡忠報國), in two of three main stone monuments erected in 1489, 1512, and 1663. The first mention appears in a section of the 1489 stele:

[…]

They received kindness from the Prince,
Lived on the income from the Prince
(They) only exerted in prayers To inform Heaven of their sincerity
Which meant “Boundless loyalty to the country and Prince.” (emphasis added)
May the Great Emperor of the Ming
His virtue surpass that of Yu and Tang
and His Highness that of Yao and Xun (Weisz, 2006, p. 18).

[…]

… 受君之恩食君之祿惟盡禮拜告天之誠報國忠君之意祝頌大明皇上德邁禹湯聖並堯舜 … (White, 1966, p. 38; see also the punctuated version).

The second is in a section of the 1512 stele:

[…]

Look at today.
If those who initiated subjects to study
And “brought glory to one’s parents
And became celebrated”
They had made it.
If those who arranged order among China and foreigners and were loyal to the Prince and benefited the people, they had made it.
Or, those who subdued the enemy and resisted aggression
And where “boundlessly loyal to the country” (emphasis added)
They had made it (Weisz, 2006, p. 26).

[…]

… 今日若進取科目而顯親揚名者有之若布列中外而致君澤民者有之或折衝禦侮而盡忠報國者有 … (White, 1966, p. 53; see also the punctuated version).

3) This is per the book’s blurb:

The World’s first Chinese-Jewish Historical Fantasy.

The Tang Monk Xuanzang along with Monkey and Pigsy famously brought the Buddhist scriptures back to China. Now the trio go on a new adventure to get the Hebrew Scriptures. The strongman Bear joins them as they face new monsters and new challenges, and finally reach a land filled with hundreds of foreign sages, yet only one god. The search for a teacher willing to come back to China is difficult, but a talking donkey helps solve the problem.

A fresh parable linking the Chinese classic story with the worlds of Western Asia and Roman Palestine, The Second Journey brings together the cultures, myths and philosophies of all Asia.

4) See my two-part article (here and here) summarizing theories about when the Kaifeng Jews first came to China.

5) Writing in 1850 CE, a Chinese protestant delegate sent to Kaifeng reported:

The present neglect of the Jewish religion is due to the fact that for these fifty years, there has been no one to instruct the members in the knowledge of the fifty-three sections of the Divine Scriptures, and in the twenty-seven [sic] letters of the Jewish alphabet (White, 1966, p. 116).

“These fifty years” implies that the last rabbi died around 1800 CE.

6) Beyond a mention of a specific “magic time traveling cave” in “Cave” (Bigman, 2024, p. 112), the reason for their time-jumping is never openly explained in the narrative. But Joel notes in his “Afterward” that he did this just so the Tang Monk could meet famous Jewish holy men (Bigman, 2024, p. 260).

7) The first minor issue is plot holes. For example, in “Kaifeng,” after being asked by Xuanzang to be his guide, Bear exclaims: “I have always wanted to go west, to where my people came from. I’ll gladly join you!” (Bigman, 2024, p. 19). But despite having never gone there, he spends the rest of the story expertly guiding the group throughout Historic Palestine like he’s intimately familiar with the routes, towns, and people. Another is that the pilgrims are able to understand spoken Hebrew without the narrative ever mentioning when they first started learning it. For instance, in “Oven,” Sun Wukong understands a debate between Jewish sages: “Old Monkey listened carefully and while it was hard to follow, the question seemed to be whether this specific oven was ritually pure or impure, or maybe whether it could become impure or not” (Bigman, 2024, p. 32). He goes on to use his magic to produce biblical miracles that support one holy man’s exclamations of truth (Bigman, 2024, pp. 34-35). In “Angels,” Bear claims out of nowhere that Xuanzang has been “learn[ing] their language, at least a bit,” and the Tang Monk shortly thereafter speaks to Moses with “accented formal Hebrew” (Bigman, 2024, p. 47). Official Hebrew lessons (in this case reading) are not mentioned until “Mother” (Bigman, 2024, p. 158). A lesser plot hole appears at the end of a particular chapter where Monkey rolls up the recently flayed hide of a biblical baddie on his staff, shrinks it, and stores it to never be seen again (Bigman, 2024, p. 80). I would have liked to have seen the skin play a part in another episode, perhaps serving as a magic blanket or being tailored into a magic robe.

The second minor issue is inconsistency. For instance, in “Kaifeng,” the sequel states that Monkey’s magic staff weighs 17,500 jin (22,762.73 lbs./10,325 kg), but “Oven” changes this to the novel accurate number of 13,500 jin (17,560 lbs./7,965 kg) (Bigman, 2024, pp. 17 and 35). “Leviathan” ups this to an astounding 54,000 jin (70,239.28 lbs./31,860 kg), and then “Skip” sees Sun hand the weapon to Moses, who picks it up with ease (Bigman, 2024, pp. 73 and 183). So, either the prophet is crazy strong, or Joel forgot how much the weapon weighs.

The third minor issue is typos. The book could do with an additional copy edit. I’ve alerted Joel to the misprints I noticed during my readings (please forgive any typos that are overlooked in this article).

Sources:

Bigman, J. (2024). The Second Journey. Hong Kong: Earnshaw Books Ltd. Retrieved from https://www.amazon.com/Second-Journey-Joel-Bigman/dp/9888843702.

Buswell, R. E. , & Lopez, D. S. (2014). The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Huili, & Shi, Y. (1995). A Biography of the Tripitaka Master of the Great Ci’en Monastery of the Great Tang Dynasty (L. Rongxi Trans.). Berkeley, CA: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research. Retrieved from https://www.bdkamerica.org/product/a-biography-of-the-tripitaka-master-of-the-great-cien-monastery/.

Weisz, T. (2006). The Kaifeng Stone Inscriptions: The Legacy of the Jewish Community in Ancient China. Bloomington, IN: iUniverse.

White, W. C. (1966). Chinese Jews: A Compilation of Matters Relating to the Jews of K’ai-fêng Fu (2nd ed.). Canada: University of Toronto Press. Retrieved from https://archive.org/details/lccn_66026456/mode/2up.

Why was Sun Wukong Able to Live 342 Years Prior to his Immortality?

Jim R. McClanahan 1 Comment

Last updated: 04-23-2026

Someone on reddit recently asked why Sun Wukong was able to live just shy of 400 years before even attaining immortality. I thought this was a good question, so I decided to split off related material from an old piece that I never finished and make a quick article. The short answer is tied to Daoist concepts of fate, and the long answer ultimately explains why Monkey strikes his name from the ledger of life and death in hell.

Table of Contents

1.  Novel Info

Here, I would like to quote two early sections from Journey to the West (Xiyouji, 西遊記, 1592) that refer to Sun Wukong’s age. The first appears in chapter one after he becomes monarch of the primates:

The Handsome Monkey King thus led a flock of gibbons, macaques, and horse-monkeys, some of whom were appointed by him as his ministers, aides, and envoys. They toured the Flower-Fruit Mountain in the morning, and they lived in the Water-Curtain Cave by night. Living in concord and sympathy, they did not mingle with bird or beast but enjoyed their independence in perfect happiness. For such were their activities:

In the spring they gathered flowers for food and drink.
In the summer they went in quest of fruits for sustenance.
In the autumn they amassed taros and chestnuts to ward off time.
In the winter they searched for yellow-sperms to live out the year.

The Handsome Monkey King had enjoyed this insouciant existence for three to five hundred years (emphasis added) when one day, while feasting with the rest of the monkeys, he suddenly grew sad and shed a few tears (based on Wu & Yu, 2012, p. 106).

美猴王領一群猿猴、獼猴、馬猴等，分派了君臣佐使。朝遊花果山，暮宿水簾洞，合契同情，不入飛鳥之叢，不從走獸之類，獨自為王，不勝歡樂。是以：

春採百花為飲食，夏尋諸果作生涯。
秋收芋栗延時節，冬覓黃精度歲華。

美猴王享樂天真，何期有三五百載。一日，與群猴喜宴之間，忽然憂惱，墮下淚來。

And the second appears in chapter three after Monkey is dragged to hell. He bullies underworld officials into giving him his ledger of life and death, in which he learns his exact age and fate:

You see, though this monkey resembled a human being [i.e. his body], he was not listed under the names of men; though he resembled the short-haired creatures [i.e. his fur], he did not dwell in their kingdoms; though he resembled other animals, he was not subject to the unicorn; and though he resembled flying creatures [i.e. his beak-like, protruding face], he was not governed by the phoenix. He had, therefore, a separate ledger, which Wukong examined himself. Under the heading “Soul1350” he found the name Sun Wukong recorded, with the description: “Heaven-born Stone Monkey. Age: three hundred and forty-two years. A good end” (emphasis added) (Wu & Yu, 2012, p. 140).

又看到猴屬之類，原來這猴似人相，不入人名；似臝蟲，不居國界；似走獸，不伏麒麟管；似飛禽，不受鳳凰轄。另有個簿子，悟空親自檢閱，直到那「魂」字一千三百五十號上，方注著孫悟空名字，乃「天產石猴，該壽三百四十二歲，善終」。

So why then was he able to live so long?

2. Religious Background

The answer lies in the concept of “pre-allotted lifespans” (ming, 命; a.k.a. “fate”) (fig. 1), which can be traced to weft texts [1] and Grand Purity (Taiqing, 太清) scriptures of the Han dynasty (3rd-c. BCE to 3rd-c. CE). According to 1st to 3rd-century CE commentators, a person’s lifespan and good or bad fortune in life were determined according to whatever combination of “heavenly pneumas” (tianqi, 天氣) and “astral essences” (xingjing, 星精) that they were born under, meaning one’s fate was not handpicked by heaven (Campany, 2005, pp. 131-134). This allotted lifespan was not set in stone, however, for it was subject to subtractions and additions based on one’s bad or good deeds. The deity in charge of this tally system was called the “Director of Allotted Life Spans” (Siming, 司命), and, unlike the underworld officials who provided Monkey with his ledger, he was said to reside in heaven where he regularly received reports on individual human sins by the tutelary Stove god (Zaoshen, 竈神) on the first, fifteenth, and last day of every month. Additionally, he received reports from the three corpses/worms (sanshi, 三尸) inhabiting a person’s body. [2] The more a person sinned, the more points (time) was subtracted, anywhere from almost a year for major offences to just three days for minor offences. Doing good deeds or cheating the system were the only ways to live out the entirety of the allotted lifespan (Campany & Ge, 2002, pp. 47-52).

Evolution of the character ming (命) (larger version). Image found here.

Ways of “living off the books” included magically disguising clothing or a sword as a body (fig. 2), ritually bribing the gods of life and death with a golden statue to be used as a substitute body, or inserting a fake death certificate into the coffin of a recently deceased grandfather. These methods essentially tricked heaven into thinking that the person had died (Campany, 2005, pp. 134-138; Campany & Ge, 2002, pp. 60). The use of longevity-bestowing elixirs was considered the only true way of breaking free of the allotted lifespan and achieving immortality. Interestingly, the Han-era Scripture on the Elixirs of the Nine Tripods (Jiuding danjing, 九鼎丹經) describes how taking a fired concoction of cinnabar, vinegar, and lacquer for a thousand days straight would result in the “Director of Allotted Life Spans expung[ing] your name from the registers of death, so that you will end only when Heaven and Earth do” (Campany & Ge, 2002, pp. 52).

Fig. 2 – A type of Chinese jian (劍) sword that might be magically disguised to look like a decoy body (larger version). Image found here.

2.1. Relation to Monkey

Therefore, we can see that Wukong’s allotted lifespan was 342 years and his birth fell under fortunate cosmic circumstances, for he was born onto an island paradise, served as the king of monkeys, and was destined to have a “good end” (shan zhong, 善終). Monkey had already achieved immortality via Daoist practices prior to being dragged to hell, so he had no need for cheating the system in order to live out the rest of his allotted lifespan. Nor did he need to take an elixir. He was simply so powerful that he could strike his name from the ledgers by force, thereby freeing himself from heaven’s control.

As for the significance of 342, Irwen Wong over at the Journey to the West Library blog has pointed out to me that the numbers add up to nine (3+4+2 = 9), which is an important digit in religious numerology. However, he also suggests that 342 could just be a random number chosen by the author-compiler. (See the 04-23-26 update below for more info.)

3. Updates

Update: 10-15-24

I was reminded that the max level in the hit video game Black Myth: Wukong (2024) is 342, an obvious reference to Monkey’s lifespan.

Update: 10-26-24

Someone on reddit disagreed with me regarding allotted lifespans. Instead, they suggested that Sun Wukong somehow naturally performs the Daoist breathing exercises that would eventually lead to his immortality, as in he lengthened his life via cultivation practices just like Monkey deduces the 270-year-old Buddhist abbot, “Elder of the Golden Pool” (Jinchi changlao, 金池長老), did in chapter 17 (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 356). But this explanation ignores two elements from the novel. One, as mentioned above, the Great Sage’s allotted lifespan of 342 years is clearly recorded in the ledgers of life and death. This is beyond dispute. And two, the book presents cultivated longevity as a crime against heaven. For example, when Sun achieves immortality, the Patriarch Subodhi gives him a warning:

“What you have learned,” said the Patriarch, “is no ordinary magic: you have stolen the creative powers of Heaven and Earth and invaded the dark mysteries of the sun and moon. Your success in perfecting the elixir is something that the gods and the demons cannot countenance. Though your appearance will be preserved and your age lengthened, [heaven will send the three calamities to destroy you]” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 121).

祖師道：「此乃非常之道：奪天地之造化，侵日月之玄機；丹成之後，鬼神難容。雖駐顏益壽，但到了五百年後，天降雷災打你，須要見性明心，預先躲避。躲得過，壽與天齊；躲不過，就此絕命。再五百年後，天降火災燒你。這火不是天火，亦不是凡火，喚做『陰火』。自本身湧泉穴下燒起，直透泥垣宮，五臟成灰，四肢皆朽，把千年苦行，俱為虛幻。再五百年，又降風災吹你。這風不是東南西北風，不是和薰金朔風，亦不是花柳松竹風，喚做『贔風』。自顖門中吹入六腑，過丹田，穿九竅，骨肉消疏，其身自解。所以都要躲過。」

The aforementioned calamities are elemental attacks of divine lightening, fire, and wind that are respectively sent every 500 years to kill cultivators for defying their fated age and attaining immortality (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, pp. 121-122).

This negative view of immortality also extends to the cultivation practices that produce it. Campany (1985) explains that demons are evil in the novel because they try to bypass the natural cosmic hierarchy by using spiritual practices to encapsulate the universe within themselves, while the pilgrims follow the “correct” path by submitting to Buddhism and building Buddhist merit in place of the selfish quest for immortality (pp. 112-113). This is perfectly summed up by the Great Sage’s story trajectory. He was considered a monster until he reformed and became Tripitaka’s disciple.

Having said that, I would like to return to the Golden Pool Elder. It’s important to remember that he learned his life-prolonging techniques from a nearby spirit, and that he was, as Monkey puts it, also a member of the fiend’s “monster’s gang” (yaojing jiedang, 妖精結黨) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 356). And when you take into account his willingness to set his own monastery on fire just to murder Tripitaka and attain the monk’s heaven-sent robe (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 340), the abbot is just as much of a devil as those he congregated with. Therefore, his cultivation falls into the same category as demons, making him an ill-suited example to use.

Update: 04-23-26

The Book to Enlightenment of the Journey to the West (Xiyou Zhengdao Shu, 西遊證道書, 1663), a Daoist commentary on the novel, points out the numerological significance of 342:

This is extremely absurd but nonetheless true. Three hundred is ten thirties; plus three tens and three fours, it equals three hundred and forty-two, also a sum of three times three (nine).

荒唐極矣，說來卻是逼真。奇絕奇絕。 〇三百者，十個三十也；又加三個十，三個四，恰是三百四十二，亦是三三之數。(Converted from simplified Chinese – source)

Notes:

1) The term “Weft texts” draws on a weaving analogy to refer to side texts that compliment or complete existing material.

2) The ancient Chinese believed that the body was inhabited by upwards of ten souls, namely three hun (魂) and seven po (魄) souls. In addition, the body was inhabited by three demonic parasites, the three corpses/worms (sanshi, 三尸), who wanted nothing more than to be rid of their mortal confinement so they’d be free to wander and eat sacrificial offerings left for ghosts. Therefore, they would report the sins of their human vessel to heaven in order to hasten their demise (Campany & Ge, 2002, p. 49, for example).

Monkey’s own three corpses/worms are referenced in chapter 32 when a demon magically calls forth a mountain that crushes our hero:

Exerting his spirit even more, he [the monster] recited another spell and sent up the Tai Mountain to press down on Pilgrim’s head. With this magic of the Tai Mountain Pressing the Head, the Great Sage was overpowered as his strength ebbed and his tendons turned numb; the weight was so great that the spirits of the Three Worms inside his body exploded (emphasis added) and blood spouted from his seven apertures [i.e. his eyes, ears, nostrils, and mouth] (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, pp. 108-109).

又整性情，把真言念動，將一座泰山遣在空中，劈頭壓住行者。那大聖力軟觔麻，遭逢他這泰山下頂之法，只壓得三尸神咋，七竅噴紅。

Sources:

Campany, R. F. (1985). Demons, Gods, and Pilgrims: The Demonology of the Hsi-yu Chi. Chinese Literature: Essays, Articles, Reviews (CLEAR), 7(1/2), 95-115. doi:10.2307/495195

Campany, R. F., & Ge, H. (2002). To Live as Long as Heaven and Earth: A Translation and Study of Ge Hong’s Traditions of Divine Transcendents. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Campany, R. F. (2005). Living off the Books: Fifty Ways to Dodge Ming in Early Medieval China. In C. Lupke (Ed.), The Magnitude of Ming: Command, Allotment, and Fate in Chinese Culture (pp. 129-150), University of Hawaii Press.

Wu, C., & Yu, A. C. (2012). The Journey to the West (Vols. 1-4) (Rev. ed.). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press.

A Possible Origin for the Term “Handsome Monkey King”

Jim R. McClanahan 2 Comments

I normally don’t post tone marks for Chinese words, but I will include them here since they are important to the subject of this article.

Měihóu wáng (美猴王), or the “Handsome Monkey King,” is one of Sūn Wùkōng‘s many names and titles. I recently saw an online post where someone proposed their own folk analysis for the character měi (美, “beautiful/handsome”), suggesting that the two prongs on top reference Monkey’s iconic feathered cap. But others quickly pointed out that this was historically not the case. This reminded me of my theory on the origins of the term Měihóu wáng.

(Left) The character měi (美, “beautiful/handsome”) (larger version). Take note of the two prongs on top. Image found here. (Right) Èrláng vs Sūn Wùkōng (larger version). Take note of Monkey’s feathered cap. Image of a production still from the 1986 TV Series.

I have suggested in an update to a past article that the title is a play on Míhóu wáng (獼猴王, “Macaque/Monkey King”), míhóu being a common term for monkeys for centuries. [1] This is because the 13th-century version of Journey to the West (Xīyóu jì, 西遊記, 1592) calls Sūn Wùkōng‘s antecedent Míhóu wáng. [2] Even a 3rd-century Chinese version of an Indian jataka tale where the Buddha is a monkey king calls him Míhóu wáng. But most importantly, the Middle Chinese pronunciation of měi (美) sounds more like “mǐ” (mijX), as do the pronunciations of many ethnic groups and even neighboring countries. This might suggest that the pre-modern usage was adopted by these people and places in the past. Therefore, Míhóu wáng and Měihóu wáng may have sounded similar at some point in history:

Modern Chinese → Middle Chinese

獼猴王 (Míhóu wáng) → Míhóu wáng (mjie-huw hjwang) [3]

美猴王 (Měihóu wáng) → Mǐhóu wáng (mijX huw hjwang) [4] 

Ethnic and foreign pronunciations of měi (美)

If true, this would mean that the common link between Sūn Wùkōng‘s title and his ego is a later interpretation.

I must point out, however, that I am NOT a language expert. This is just something that dawned on me one day. I would like feedback from more knowledgeable readers. Please write me via the “contact” button on the menu, or leave a comment below.

The Handsome Monkey King is waited on by his children (larger version). Image from the Japanese children’s book Son Goku (孫悟空,1939).

Notes:

1) Míhóu is one of various transcriptions for a word of non-Chinese origin used in ancient China to mean “monkey”:

The fact that mu occurs in four variants: 母 and 沐 in Chou literature, and mi 米 or 獼 during the Han dynasty and later, proves that this binom is a phonetic rendering of a non-Chinese term (Van Gulik, 1967, p. 35).

2) The full title is the “Bronze-Headed, Iron-Browed King of the Eighty-Four Thousand Monkeys of the Purple Cloud Grotto on the Mountain of Flowers and Fruit” (Huāguǒ shān Zǐyún dòng bāwàn sìqiān tóngtóu tiě’é Míhóu wáng, 花果山紫雲洞八萬四千銅頭鐵額獼猴王) (Wivell, 1994, p. 1182).

3) See Kroll et al. (2015, pp. 162, 302, and 469).

4) See Kroll et al. (2015, pp. 162, 299, and 469).

Source:

Kroll, P. W., Baxter, W., Boltz, W. G., Knechtges, D. R., Lien, Y. E., Richter, A., Richter, M. L., Warner, D. X. (2015). A Student’s Dictionary of Classical and Medieval Chinese. Belgium: Brill.

Van Gulik, R. H. (1967). The Gibbon in China: An Essay in Chinese Animal Lore. Leiden: E.J. Brill.

Wivell, C.S. (1994). The Story of How the Monk Tripitaka of the Great Country of T’ang Brought Back the Sūtras. In V. Mair (Ed.), The Columbia Anthology of Traditional Chinese Literature (pp. 1181-1207). New York: Columbia University Press.