Tag Bodhisattva Guanyin

The Past Life Biography of Zhu Bajie

Jim R. McClanahan Leave a comment

Last updated: 04-09-2025

A twitter user asked me in late 2024 where Zhu Bajie (豬八戒; fig. 1) learned his “36 transformations” (sanshiliu ban bianhua, 三十六般變化). I told them that chapters 19 and 85 of Journey to the West (Xiyouji, 西遊記; “JTTW” hereafter) contain biographical poems, one of which explains his internal alchemy (neidan, 内丹) training under an immortal and ascension to godhood. I suggested that his past human life learned the magic changes during this time, but after answering the question, it dawned on me that many people may not be aware of these verses. I have, therefore, decided to post and analyze said poems for the benefit of my readers.

This is the second of three articles where I will present info about the disciples’ lives prior to the main events of JTTW. My next article will follow with Sha Wujing‘s (沙悟净) poem. Click here to read the first post about the White Dragon Horse (Bai longma, 白龍馬). These are meant to compliment my previous essay about Sun Wukong (孫悟空).

(On a related note, see here for the oldest known depictions of Zhu Bajie. They come from 14th-century Korea!)

Fig. 1 – A novel accurate depiction of the Tang Monk’s disciples, including our hog hero (top left) (larger version). Artwork by @真·迪绝人 (see here and here).

1. The poems

The novel actually presents two contradictory verses on the origins of our beloved pig-monster. One (ch. 19) portrays him as a human-turned-immortal commander of heavenly forces, while the other (ch. 85) alludes to him being a powerful hog-spirit given celestial rank.

1.1. Chapter 19

This poem is chock-full of internal alchemical jargon, so I’m placing explanatory notes just below the blockquote to save readers from having to scroll to the very bottom of the article every time a new concept is mentioned.

My mind was dim since the time of youth;
Always I loved my indolence and sloth.
Neither nursing nature nor seeking the Real,
I passed my days deluded and confused.
I met a true immortal suddenly
Who sat and spoke to me of cold and heat. [A]
‘Repent,’ he said, ‘and cease your worldly way:
From taking life accrues a boundless curse.
One day when the Great Limit ends your lot,
For eight woes and three ways you’ll grieve too late!’ 
I listened and turned my will to mend my ways:
I heard, repented, and sought the wondrous rune.
By fate my teacher he became at once,
Pointing to the Heavenly and Earthly Passes. [B]
Taught to forge the Great Pill Nine Times Reversed, [C]
I worked without pause through day and night
To reach Mud-Pill Palace topping my skull [D]
And Jetting-Spring Points on soles of my feet. [E]
With kidney brine flooding the Floral Pool, [F]
My Cinnabar Field was thus warmly nursed. [G]
Baby and Fair Girl mated as yin and yang; [H]
Lead and mercury mixed as sun and moon. [I]
In concord Li-dragon and Kan-tiger used, [J]
The spirit turtle sucked dry the gold crow’s blood. [K]
‘Three flowers joined on top,’ the root reclaimed [L];
‘Five breaths faced their source’ and all freely flowed. [M]
My merit done, I ascended on high,
Met by pairs of immortals from the sky.
Radiant pink clouds arose beneath my feet;
With light, sound frame I faced the Golden Arch.
The Jade Emperor gave a banquet for gods
Who sat in rows according to their ranks.
Made a marshal of the Celestial Stream,
I took command of both sailors and ships.
Because Queen Mother gave the Peaches Feast
When she met her guests at the Jasper Pool
My mind turned hazy for I got dead drunk,
A shameless rowdy reeling left and right.
Boldly I barged into Vast Cold Palace
Where the charming fairy received me in.
When I saw her face that would snare one’s soul,
My carnal itch of old could not be stopped!
Without regard for manners or for rank,
I grabbed Miss Chang’e asking her to bed.
For three or four times she rejected me:
Hiding east and west, she was sore annoyed.
My passion sky-high I roared like thunder,
Almost toppling the arch of Heaven’s gate.
Inspector General told the Emperor Jade;
I was destined that day to meet my fate.
The Vast Cold completely enclosed airtight
Left me no way to run or to escape.
Then I was caught by the various gods,
Undaunted still, for wine was in my heart.
Bound and taken to see the Emperor Jade,
By law I should have been condemned to death.
It was Venus the Gold Star, Mr. Li,
Who left the ranks and knelt to beg for me.
My punishment changed to two thousand blows,
My flesh was torn; my bones did almost crack.
Alive! I was banished from Heaven’s gate
To make my home beneath the Fuling Mount.
An errant womb’s my sinful destination: Stiff-Bristle Hog’s my worldly appellation!” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, pp. 378-379).

自小生來心性拙，貪閑愛懶無休歇。
不曾養性與修真，混沌迷心熬日月。
忽然閑裡遇真仙，就把寒溫坐下說。
勸我回心莫墮凡，傷生造下無邊孽。
有朝大限命終時，八難三途悔不喋。
聽言意轉要修行，聞語心回求妙訣。
有緣立地拜為師，指示天關並地[關]闕。
得傳九轉大還丹，工夫晝夜無時輟。
上至頂門泥丸宮，下至腳板湧泉穴。
周流腎水入華池，丹田補得溫溫熱。
嬰兒姹女配陰陽，鉛汞相投分日月。
離龍坎虎用調和，靈龜吸盡金烏血。
三花聚頂得歸根，五氣朝元通透徹。
功圓行滿卻飛昇，天仙對對來迎接。
朗然足下彩雲生，身輕體健朝金闕。
玉皇設宴會群仙，各分品級排班列。
敕封元帥管天河，總督水兵稱憲節。
只因王母會蟠桃，開宴瑤池邀眾客。
那時酒醉意昏沉，東倒西歪亂撒潑。
逞雄撞入廣寒宮，風流仙子來相接。
見他容貌挾人魂，舊日凡心難得滅。
全無上下失尊卑，扯住嫦娥要陪歇。
再三再四不依從，東躲西藏心不悅。
色膽如天叫似雷，險些震倒天關闕。
糾察靈官奏玉皇，那日吾當命運拙。
廣寒圍困不通風，進退無門難得脫。
卻被諸神拿住我，酒在心頭還不怯。
押赴靈霄見玉皇，依律問成該處決。
多虧太白李金星，出班俯顖親言說。
改刑重責二千鎚，肉綻皮開骨將折。
放生遭貶出天關，福陵山下圖家業。
我因有罪錯投胎，俗名喚做豬剛鬣。(source)

Footnotes:

A) “[C]old and heat,” (riyue, 日月; lit: “sun and moon”) refers to respective yang and yin energies (Pregadio, 2025p; see also Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 527 n. 2).

B) The original Chinese, “天關並地闕” (tianguan bing dique, or “heavenly passes and earthly watchtowers(?)”), is a likely typo for “天關並地關” (tianguan bing diguan, or “heavenly and earthly passes”). These respectively refer to the head and feet (Pregadio, 2025d, 2025s). I’ve therefore altered Yu’s (Wu & Yu, 2012) translation.

C) The “Great Pill [i.e. Elixir] Nine Times Reversed” (jiuzhuan da huandan, 九轉大還丹) was originally an external alchemical process where a concoction of toxic elements was purified over successive firings in a crucible to create a drug of immortality (see section 3.1. of this article). However, the term was coopted by later proponents of internal alchemy, who associated the ingestion and circulation of immortality-bestowing cosmic energies within pathways between bodily organs with a complex five phases-influenced numerology (Pregadio, 2025b, 2025n). Needham (1954, as cited in Wu & Yu, 2012) adds that it refers “to a chhi [qi, pneumatic vitality, breath] or substance generated by techniques purposefully within the human body which would bring about a reversion of the tissues from an ageing state to an infantile state” (vo. 1, p. 527 n. 4).

D) The “Mud-Pill Palace” (niwan gong, 泥丸宮) is a name for the upper cinnabar field in the head (Pregadio, 2025m; Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 528 n. 6).

E) The “Jetting-Spring Points” (yongquan xue, 湧泉穴) are pressure points on the bottom of the feet (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 528 n. 7).

F) Yu (Wu & Yu, 2012) explains that spiritual energies contained in the kidneys (which are associated with the water element) can be directed to different parts of the practitioner’s body, including a spot under the tongue, the “Floral pool” (huachi, 華池) (vol. 1, p. 528 n. 8; see also Pregadio, 2025r). While this is no doubt the correct answer, it’s important to note that internal alchemy also uses the term Floral pool to refer to true yang energy inside yin (Pregadio, 2025h). The corresponding term is “spirit water” (shenshui, 神水), which denotes true yin energy inside yang—think of the white and black dots inside of the Taiji symbol (Pregadio, 2025h). Therefore, the poem’s original Chinese “腎水入華池” (shenshui ru huachi, or “kidney brine flooding the floral pool”) could also be a reference to the similarly-sounding phrase “神水入華池” (shenshui ru huachi, or “spirit water flooding the floral pool), or the mixture of yang and yin, respectively.

G) The “Cinnabar Field” (dantian, 丹田) is one of three spiritual centers in the body, which is located between 1.3 to 3.6 Chinese inches (cun, 寸; 1 = 1.25 in/3.18 cm) below (or behind) the belly button. The Cinnabar Field is believed to store cosmic/bodily energies, that when circulated and refined, produce an immortal alchemical embryo—i.e. a fledgling immortal spirit avatar (Pregadio, 2025c; see also Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 528 n. 9). And “warmly nursed” (bu de wenwen’re, 補得溫溫熱) may refer to “nourishing warmly” (wenyang, 溫養), or the process of “gestati[ng] the alchemical embryo” (Pregadio, 2025t).

H) The “Baby and Fair Girl” (ying’er chanu, 嬰兒姹女) are anthropomorphic personas of yang and yin energy, respectively (Pregadio, 2025a, 2025w; see also Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 528 n. 10).

I) The elemental and celestial imagery of “lead and mercury” (qian gong/hong, 鉛汞) and “sun and moon” (riyue, 日月) refer to yang and yin energies, respectively (Pregadio, 2025g, 2025o, 2025p).

J) The third eight trigram figure, Li (離/☲), is associated with dragons (long, 龍), and both symbolize yang energy. The sixth figure, Kan (坎/☵), is associated with tigers (hu, 虎), and both symbolize yin energy (fig. 2) (Pregadio, 2025j, 2025k, 2025l; see also Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 529 n. 11).

K) Yu (Wu & Yu, 2012) suggests that “turtle” (gui, 龜) “may be another name for the dark liquid of the kidneys” (vol. 1, p. 529 n. 12). He continues, “[T]he gold crow indicates the sun or the heart. The line refers to the union of yin and yang through the absorption of yang energy by yin” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 529 n. 12). While I agree that this refers to the mixing of said energies, it’s important to note, however, that turtles are usually paired with “snakes” (she, 蛇), both being anthropomorphic symbols of jing-essence and qi-breath (精氣), respectively (Pregadio, 2025f). Additionally, the “gold crow” (jinwu, 金烏), an anthropomorphic symbol of true yin inside yang energy, is normally paired with the “jade rabbit” (yutu, 玉兔), an anthropomorphic symbol of true yang inside yin (Pregadio, 2025i, 2025y). Similarly, “blood” (xue, 血) represents true yin inside of yang (Pregadio, 2025v).

L) The “Three flowers” (sanhua, 三花) is another name for jing-essence, qi-breath, and shen-spirit (精氣神), three important bio-spiritual substances/energies. These must be “joined on top” (juding, 聚頂), or concentrated in the head (the upper cinnabar field) during the internal alchemical process (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 529 n. 13; see also Pregadio, 2025q). This leads to the “root [being] reclaimed” (guigen, 歸根), which refers to “[g]oing back to the root and returning to the mandate” (guigen fuming, 歸根復命), or achieving immortality (Pregadio, 2025e).

M) Yu (Wu & Yu, 2012) explains, “Five breaths … wuqi chaoyuan 五氣朝元, refers to the pneumatic vitality, qi, of the five viscera (heart, liver, spleen, lungs, and kidneys) in harmonious balance” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 529 n. 14). A related view is that said viscera are synced with bio-spiritual substances or mental concepts—ie. hun/liver, jing-essence/kidneys, spirit/heart, po/lungs, intention/spleen—when a practitioner has learned to quiet their senses and still their body (Pregadio, 2025u).

Fig. 2 – An internal alchemy diagram of a Daoist cultivator circulating yang and yin energies, which are respectively represented by the eight trigrams figures ☲ (Li, 離) and ☵ (Kan, 坎) and the elements fire and water (larger version). Image found here. I believe it originally comes from the Anthology of Immortals of Complete Perfection (Quanzhen qunxian ji, 全真群仙集, 1483).

1.2. Explanation

Zhu was originally a lazy, aimless man, but he encountered a celestial who told him to mend his ways, or else he would be reborn in the lower three Buddhist realms of hell, hungry ghosts, or animals, making it impossible for him to hear the Buddha’s teachings (an example of the novel’s syncretic unity). Upon repenting, he studied under the immortal, learning the art of internal alchemy, which involved absorbing and circulating vital energies around his body. Once he had attained transcendence, he rose on clouds to be escorted by other celestials into the heavenly realm, where he was appointed marshal of the heavenly navy, which sailed the cosmic river of the Milky Way Galaxy.

But his great achievement was tainted when he got drunk at the Queen Mother’s peach banquet and, being aroused by Chang’e’s dazzling beauty (fig. 3), chased her to the moon palace. He propositioned the goddess for sex several times, but her refusals sent him into a powerful rage. The protector deity Wang Lingguan reported this to the Jade Emperor, who had the moon palace surrounded by heavenly soldiers. The Marshal was soon captured and sentenced to death, but the planet Venus asked for lenience, leading to Zhu’s past life being beaten 2,000 times and banished from the heavenly realm. His divine spirit sought reincarnation in the mortal realm below, but an accident of fate led to his rebirth as a pig-spirit. He later took the name “Stiff-Bristles Hog” (Zhu Ganglie, 豬剛鬣) based on his porcine appearance.

Zhu Bajie-Chang'e stamp

Fig. 3 – A Taiwanese stamp reading, “Drunkenly playing Chang’e” (Zuixi Change, 醉戲嫦娥) (larger version). It’s likely meant to serve as a visual reminder of Zhu’s early story arc involving the events leading to his banishment from heaven and rebirth as a hog-spirit.

1.3. Chapter 85

With huge mouth and fangs I’ve great magic might.
Emperor Jade made me Marshal Heavenly Reeds.
The boss of Heaven’s eighty-thousand marines,
Comforts and joys I had in the halls of light.
Because I mocked a palace maiden when I was drunk
And flaunted my strength at a wrongful hour
One shove of my snout toppled the Dipper–Ox Palace;
Queen Mother’s divine herbs I then devoured
Emperor Jade pounded me two thousand times
And banished me from the Three Heavens realm.
Though told to nourish my primal spirit,
I became again a monster down below.
About to marry at the Village Gao, I met Brother Sun—’twas my wretched fate!
Quite defeated by his golden-hooped rod,
I had to bow and take the Buddhist vow:
A coolie who bears luggage and leads the horse,
Who owes, in former life, the Tang Monk a debt!
This iron-legged Heavenly Reed‘s name is Zhu;
And my religious name is Zhu Eight Rules” (based on Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 4, pp. 149-150).

巨口獠牙神力大，玉皇陞我天蓬帥。
掌管天河八萬兵，天宮快樂多自在。
只因酒醉戲宮娥，那時就把英雄賣。
一嘴拱倒斗牛宮，吃了王母靈芝菜。
玉皇親打二千鎚，把吾貶下三天界。
教吾立志養元神，下方卻又為妖怪。
正在高莊喜結親，命低撞著孫兄在。
金箍棒下受他降，低頭才把沙門拜。
背馬挑包做夯工，前生少了唐僧債。
鐵腳天蓬本姓豬，法名喚作豬八戒。(source)

1.4. Explanation

He was originally a pig-spirit with sharp tusks and powerful magic (fig. 4) who was appointed Marshal Tianpeng, commander of the 80,000-strong celestial navy. He enjoyed his new life among the godly ranks but later got drunk (at the Queen Mother’s banquet) and performed a number of forbidden deeds: mistreating a moon goddess, knocking over the Dipper-Ox Palace, and eating the Queen mother’s magic mushrooms. This resulted in a punishment of 2,000 strokes and banishment from heaven, with the added instruction to cultivate his spirit while on earth. But he once again became a monster, and at some point,  he took a wife in Gao Village. He was subsequently defeated by Monkey and forced to take the Buddhist vows, serving as Tripitaka’s disciple and luggage handler. His discipleship may have been the karmic result of a good deed that his master performed for him in a past life.

Fig. 4 – Zhu’s giant boar form from the manhua Journey to the West (Xiyouji, 西遊記) (larger version).

2. Which is true?

Both poems provide certain information that is consistent with internal narrative details, such as:

  • Zhu originally serving as Marshal Heavenly Reed (Tianpeng yuanshuai, 天蓬元帥; lit: “Marshal of Heavenly Mugwort“), commander of the 80,000 soldiers of the celestial navy (and a historical deity) (fig. 5)
  • Getting drunk at the peach festival and harassing a moon goddess
  • Being beaten 2,000 times as punishment and exiled to the mortal world
  • Mistakenly being reborn as Stiff-Bristles Hog, a bloodthirsty pig-monster in Fuling Mountain (Fuling shan, 福陵山)
  • Eventually taking a wife in Gao Village (Gao zhuang, 高莊)
  • Being defeated by Sun Wukong
  • Becoming Zhu Bajie, a Buddhist disciple of Tripitaka
  • Acting as a coolie carrying the luggage

But the real question is: was Zhu originally human or a pig-spirit? I think the first poem is likely true (within the narrative) given the amount of detail that he provides about the alchemical processes that eventually led to his immortality and ascension to godhood. The second poem is cursory in comparison and seems like something that was made up on the spot to embellish his might—perhaps influenced by stories of Sun Wukong’s past havoc in heaven—or monstrous pedigree in the face of a demonic opponent (refer to the events in chapter 85). One detail pointing to this is his claim of knocking over the “Dipper-Ox Palace” (Douniu gong, 斗牛宮), which references the stars of the Southern Dipper and Ox mansions (Stephenson, 2008, p. 517). He’s therefore asserting that he can collapse entire constellations. That’s definitely nonsense as Zhu is often overpowered and defeated in battle, even by groups of little fiends (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, pp. 102-103, for example).

Fig. 5 – A historical painting of “Great Marshal Tianpeng” (Tianpeng da yuanshui, 天蓬大元帥) from the Ink Treasures of Wu Daozi (Daozi mobao, 道子墨寶, 13th-century), (larger version). Image altered for clarity.

3. Additional info

The poems actually leave out several details about Zhu’s past and current lives.

  1. The Chang’e (嫦娥) mentioned above is not the singular goddess but one of many such named divine maidens in the entourage of the “Star Lord of Supreme Yin” (Taiyin xingjun, 太陰星君), the aged devi of the moon. [1]
  2. He mauled his sow mother and piglet siblings to death sometime after his mistaken rebirth in Fuling Mountain (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 212).
  3. His first wife, “Second Elder Sister Mao” (Mao erjie, 夘二姐), [2] a likely rabbit spirit, [3] was the original owner of his Cloudy Paths Cave (Yunzhan dong, 雲棧洞) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 212). But sadly, she died less than a year after their marriage (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 212). Their tragic love story would be good fodder for fanfiction.
  4. He was invited by the Crow’s Nest Chan Master (Wuchao chanshi, 烏巢禪師), a Buddhist sage, to practice austerities, but he passed on the opportunity.
  5. Years prior to being called Zhu Bajie, he submitted to Buddhism at the behest of the bodhisattva Guanyin and was given the religious name “Zhu Wuneng” (豬悟能, “Pig Who Awakens to Power”) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 213).
  6. Sometime after adopting a vegetarian diet, [4] he magically transformed into a “stout, swarthy [human] fellow” (hei pang han, 黑胖漢) in order to fraudulently arrange a marriage with his second wife, “Green Orchid” (Cui’lan, 翠蘭), a maiden from Gao Village in Tibet (Wusizang, 烏斯藏) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 372). [5]
  7. The Gao family grew rich from his supernatural labors in the field (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, pp. 375 and 381).
  8. But he was abusive to his wife, locking her inside a back building and not allowing her to see her family for half a year (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 372).
  9. Monkey tricked Zhu by magically taking his wife’s form and hiding in a dark room (fig. 6), [6] but he later overpowered the hog-spirit in combat (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 380). Zhu eventually submitted when he learned Sun was escorting the scripture pilgrim to India (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 384).

Lastly, I would like to suggest that the immortal teacher of Zhu’s past life also taught him divine military arts—like Master Ghost Valley taught Sun Bin in vernacular fiction—because why else would a random person be given command of the entire heavenly navy? I headcanon that he was once a brilliant military strategist and commander, but his mistaken reincarnation as a hog made him very dim and lazy.

Fig. 6 – A woodblock print from the original 1592 edition of JTTW reading, “The fake Green Orchid outsmarts Stiff-Bristles Hog” (Jia Cui’lan zhinong Zhu Ganglie, 假翠蘭智㺯(弄)豬剛鬣) (larger version). See page 228 of the linked PDF. I’m intrigued by the pig-spirit’s failed human transformation.

Update: 03-04-25

Friend of the blog NingadudeXx has drawn a picture of Zhu Bajie as his past life, Marshal Tianpeng (fig. 7), based on the god’s historical iconography (refer back to fig. 5).

Fig. 7 – Zhu Bajie as Marshal Tianpeng (larger version).

Update: 04-09-25

I forgot to mention that Zhu has some medical knowledge. In chapter 41, for example, he performs life-saving massage to resuscitate a dead Sun Wukong:

With a chuckle, Eight Rules [Zhu Bajie] said, “Brother, stop crying. This ape is pretending to be dead, just to scare us. Feel him a little and see if there’s any warmth left in his breast.” “The whole body has turned cold,” said Sha Monk [Sha Wujing]. “Even if there were a little warmth left, how could you revive him?” Eight Rules said, “If he is capable of seventy-two transformations, he has seventy-two lives. Listen, you stretch out his legs while I take care of him.” Sha Monk indeed straightened Pilgrim’s legs while Eight Rules lifted his head and straightened his upper torso. They then pushed his legs up and folded them around the knees before raising him into a sitting position. Rubbing his hands together until they were warm, Eight Rules covered Pilgrim’s seven apertures and began to apply a Chan method [anmo chanfa, 按摩禪法] of massage on him (emphasis added). The cold water, you see, had had such a traumatic effect on Pilgrim that his breath was caught in his cinnabar field and he could not utter a sound. He was lucky, therefore, to have all that rubbing, squeezing, and kneading by Eight Rules, for in a moment his breath went through the three passes, invaded the bright hall, and burst through his apertures. and burst through his apertures. “O Master,” he [Monkey] began to say (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, p. 232).

八戒笑道：「兄弟莫哭。這猴子佯推死，嚇我們哩。你摸他摸，胸前還有一點熱氣沒有？」沙僧道：「渾身都冷了，就有一點兒熱氣，怎的就得回生？」八戒道：「他有七十二般變化，就有七十二條性命。你扯著腳，等我擺佈他。」真個那沙僧扯著腳，八戒扶著頭，把他拽個直，推上腳來，盤膝坐定。八戒將兩手搓熱，仵住他的七竅，使一個按摩禪法。原來那行者被冷水逼了，氣阻丹田，不能出聲。卻幸得八戒按摸揉擦，須臾間，氣透三關，轉明堂，沖開孔竅，叫了一聲：「師父啊！」

Also, in chapter 69, he argues with Wukong about the attributes and usages of a medicinal ingredient:

“The flavour of badou [巴豆],” said Eight Rules, “is slightly acrid; its nature is hot and poisonous. Able to pare down the hard and the accumulated, it will therefore sweep out the submerged chills of one’s internal cavities. Able to bore through clottings and impediments, it will therefore facilitate the paths of water and grain. This is a warrior who can break down doors and passes, and it should be used lightly” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 274).

八戒道：「巴豆味辛，性熱有毒。削堅積，蕩肺腑之沉寒；通閉塞，利水穀之道路。乃斬關奪門之將，不可輕用。」

This might suggest that Bajie also learned these skills from his immortal master.

Endnotes:

1) Chapter 95 explains that the seemingly singular goddess Chang’e is actually a collective, and also that one of them was the maiden that Zhu’s former life had harassed in the past:

As they stared into the sky, they heard the Great Sage Sun crying out in a loud voice: “Your Majesty of India, please ask your queen and concubines to come out and look. Beneath this treasure canopy is the Star Lord of Supreme Yin of the Moon Palace, and the immortal sisters on both sides of her* are the Chang’e goddesses inside the moon (emphasis added). This little jade hare is the false princess of your household; she has now revealed her true form.”

The king hurriedly assembled the queen, his concubines, the palace maidens, and gaily-attired girls to bow to the sky and worship. He himself and the Tang Monk also expressed their thanks toward the sky by bowing low. All the households in the city also set up incense tables and kowtowed, chanting the name of Buddha.

As they looked up into the air, Zhu Eight Rules was moved to lust. Unable to contain himself, he leaped into the air and embraced a rainbow-skirted immortal, crying, “Sister, you and I are old acquaintances! Let’s go play!” (emphasis added) (based on Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 4, p. 303).

眾擡頭看處，又聞得孫大聖厲聲高叫道：「天竺陛下，請出你那皇后、嬪妃看者：這寶幢下乃月宮太陰星君，兩邊的仙妹是月裡嫦娥。這個玉兔兒卻是你家的假公主，今現真相也。」那國王急召皇后、嬪妃與宮娥、綵女等眾朝天禮拜，他和唐僧及多官亦俱望空拜謝。滿城中各家各戶，也無一人不設香案，叩頭念佛。正此觀看處，豬八戒動了慾心，忍不住，跳在空中，把霓裳仙子抱住道：「姐姐，我與你是舊相識，我和你耍子兒去也。」

* Yu (Wu & Yu, 2012) calls the Star Lord of Supreme Yin “him” in his original translation (vol. 4, p. 303), but the deity has been portrayed as a woman for centuries. See, for instance, her depiction (2nd from the top left) in the Ink Treasures of Wu Daozi (Daozi mobao, 道子墨寶, 13th-century).

2) Yu (Wu & Yu, 2012) translates her name as “Second Elder Sister Egg” (Luan erjie, 卵二姐)” (vol. 1, p. 212). But this is based on a transcription error—i.e. 夘 (Mao; original edition) vs 卵 (Luan; modern edition).

3) The relationship of Zhu and Second Elder Sister Mao references the synergy between the elemental and animal aspects of the 12 earthly branches—i.e. Mao (夘; yin wood/rabbit) and Hai (亥; yang wood/pig) complete each other.

4) His vegetarian diet is mentioned in chapters 18 and 19 (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, pp. 372, 384, and 386).

5) Yu (Wu & Yu, 2012) translates “烏斯藏” (Wusizang), the location of Gao village, as the “Kingdom of Qoco” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 369). However, this phrase actually refers to Dbus-gtsang, or Tibet (Zhang, 2023, pp. 32-33; Wilkinson, 2000, p. 728).

6) I’ve previously suggested that this episode was influenced by a scene from chapter five of the Water Margin (Shuihu zhuan, 水滸傳, c. 1400). Both feature:

  • Young, beautiful daughters in unwanted relationships (Green Orchid vs the unnamed maiden).
  • Elderly fathers worried for their child (Mr. Gao vs Mr. Liu).
  • Evil spirit-turned-inhumanly strong, hot-tempered, heavy metal staff-wielding martial monks who come to their aid (Sun Wukong vs Lu Zhishen).
  • The monk takes the place of the woman in a darkened room.
  • The villain is beaten (Zhu Bajie vs Zhou Tong) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, pp. 374-377; Shi & Luo, 1993/2021, pp. 109-113).

Sources:

Pregadio, F. (2025a). cha nü 姹女 (chanü). In Dictionary of Taoist Internal Alchemy (pp. 19-20). Leiden: Brill.

Pregadio, F. (2025b). da huan dan 大還丹 (da huandan). In Dictionary of Taoist Internal Alchemy (pp. 32-33). Leiden: Brill.

Pregadio, F. (2025c). dan tian 丹田 (dantian). In Dictionary of Taoist Internal Alchemy (pp. 38-39). Leiden: Brill.

Pregadio, F. (2025d). di guan 地關 (diguan). In Dictionary of Taoist Internal Alchemy (p. 45). Leiden: Brill.

Pregadio, F. (2025e). gui gen fu ming 歸根復命 (guigen fuming). In Dictionary of Taoist Internal Alchemy (p. 78). Leiden: Brill.

Pregadio, F. (2025f). gui she 龜蛇 (guishe). In Dictionary of Taoist Internal Alchemy (p. 78). Leiden: Brill.

Pregadio, F. (2025g). hong 汞. In Dictionary of Taoist Internal Alchemy (p. 86). Leiden: Brill.

Pregadio, F. (2025h). hua chi shen shui 華池神水 (huachi shenshui). In Dictionary of Taoist Internal Alchemy (p. 90). Leiden: Brill.

Pregadio, F. (2025i). jin wu 金烏 (jinwu). In Dictionary of Taoist Internal Alchemy (pp. 124-125). Leiden: Brill.

Pregadio, F. (2025j). kan 坎. In Dictionary of Taoist Internal Alchemy (p. 134). Leiden: Brill.

Pregadio, F. (2025k). li 離. In Dictionary of Taoist Internal Alchemy (pp. 142-143). Leiden: Brill.

Pregadio, F. (2025l). long hu 龍虎 (longhu). In Dictionary of Taoist Internal Alchemy (pp. 154-156). Leiden: Brill.

Pregadio, F. (2025m). ni wan gong 泥丸宮 (niwan gong). In Dictionary of Taoist Internal Alchemy (p. 174). Leiden: Brill.

Pregadio, F. (2025n). qi fan jiu huan 七返九還 (qifan jiuhuan). In Dictionary of Taoist Internal Alchemy (pp. 183-184). Leiden: Brill.

Pregadio, F. (2025o). qian 鉛. In Dictionary of Taoist Internal Alchemy (p. 188). Leiden: Brill.

Pregadio, F. (2025p). ri yue 日月 (riyue). In Dictionary of Taoist Internal Alchemy (pp. 202-203). Leiden: Brill.

Pregadio, F. (2025q). san hua ju ding 三花聚頂 (sanhua juding). In Dictionary of Taoist Internal Alchemy (p. 214). Leiden: Brill.

Pregadio, F. (2025r). shen 腎. In Dictionary of Taoist Internal Alchemy (pp. 230-231). Leiden: Brill.

Pregadio, F. (2025s). tian guan 天關 (tianguan). In Dictionary of Taoist Internal Alchemy (p. 262). Leiden: Brill.

Pregadio, F. (2025t). wen yang 溫養 (wenyang). In Dictionary of Taoist Internal Alchemy (p. 276). Leiden: Brill.

Pregadio, F. (2025u). wu qi chao yuan 五氣朝元 (wuqi chaoyuan). In Dictionary of Taoist Internal Alchemy (pp. 282-283). Leiden: Brill.

Pregadio, F. (2025v). xue 血. In Dictionary of Taoist Internal Alchemy (pp. 321-322). Leiden: Brill.

Pregadio, F. (2025w). ying er 嬰兒 (ying’er) (1). In Dictionary of Taoist Internal Alchemy (pp. 341-342). Leiden: Brill.

Pregadio, F. (2025x). ying er 嬰兒 (ying’er) (2). In Dictionary of Taoist Internal Alchemy (p. 342). Leiden: Brill.

Pregadio, F. (2025y). yu tu 玉兔 (yutu). In Dictionary of Taoist Internal Alchemy (p. 346). Leiden: Brill.

Shi, N., & Luo, G. (2021). Outlaws of the Marsh (Vols. 1-4) (S. Shapiro, Trans.). Beijing: Foreign Languages Press. (Original work published 1993)

Stephenson, F. R. (2008). Lunar Mansions in Chinese Astronomy. In H. Selin (Ed.), Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures (pp. 516-518) (2nd ed.). Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Wilkinson, E. P. (2000). Chinese History: A Manual. United Kingdom: Harvard University Asia Center.

Wu, C., & Yu, A. C. (2012). The Journey to the West (Vols. 1-4) (Rev. ed.). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press.

Zhang, F. (2023). The Eastern Land and the Western Heaven: Qing Cosmopolitanism and Its Translation in Tibet in the Eighteenth Century. United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis.

Review: The Second Journey (2024) by Joel Bigman

Jim R. McClanahan Leave a comment

Note: I was not paid for this review.

Format: Ebook ($6.99 USD) and paperback (280 pages; $19.99 to $21.99 USD) [1]
Publisher: Earnshaw Books Ltd.
Release date: December 17th, 2024
Purchase links:

1. Introduction

Over two decades ago I was inspired by Journey to the West (Xiyouji, 西遊記, 1592 CE; “JTTW” hereafter) to begin writing my own Chinese fantasy about an itinerant disciple of Sun Wukong battling monsters across ancient China. However, this all changed when I learned about the Kaifeng Jews, a historical enclave of sinified Israelite descendants who have lived in the Middle Kingdom for nearly a millennium. This convergence of two different cultures immediately captured my imagination, leading to the main character becoming the son of a founding member of the community. He would go on to brave supernatural events and creatures while serving as a soldier under General Yue Fei (1103–1142 CE), [2] eventually becoming a Jewish sage and powerful exorcist later in life. However, the book ultimately didn’t materialize as I came to realize that I was much better at coming up with research-based story ideas than actually writing narratives. Thus, my dreams of a Chinese-Jewish fantasy novel never came to pass.

But fret not, for Joel Bigman has written The Second Journey (2024), a modern sequel to JTTW, which is being touted as “The World’s First Chinese-Jewish Historical Fantasy.” [3] The story is framed as the contents of a lost 7th-century CE scroll discovered inside a buried jar while city planners investigate a watermain leak in modern Xi’an, Shaanxi province, China. A subsequent translation of the Aramaic text reveals a second, unknown journey undertaken by Xuanzang, Sun Wukong, and Zhu Bajie (but not Sha Wujing or the Dragon Horse) five years after their original return. This new quest is initiated by the Bodhisattva Guanyin, who requests that the Tang Monk seek knowledge outside of China for the benefit of the Kaifeng Jews, who have assimilated so much into Chinese culture that they’ve forgotten how to read their Hebrew scriptures. The trio travels past India and into Central Asia, where they procure the services of “Bear” (a.k.a. the “Second Samson“), a supernaturally strong Jew with knowledge of the various routes and personages of Historic Palestine. Together with a mysterious donkey, they travel from town to town looking for a holy man willing to return to China and become the Kaifeng Jewish community’s new teacher, thereby reigniting their religious life. Bear arranges for the pilgrims to meet and stay with several such holy men—allowing them to learn Hebrew and Jewish culture and religious history along the way—but the search for the right candidate is quite difficult.

Cover art by the wonderful Yuyu (与鱼), a freelance illustrator. You can see other examples of their work here.

2. Analysis

2.1. Compare and contrast

How does The Second Journey compare to JTTW? Recall that the original is a fictionalized retelling of the historical monk Xuanzang‘s (玄奘, 602–664 CE) journey to India from 627 to 645 (640 to 654 in the novel) (Buswell & Lopez, 2014, pp. 1015-1016; Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 293; vol. 4, p. 374). The set up for the sequel is also based on actual history. The Jewish community of Kaifeng, Henan Province, China is believed to have been founded around the Northern Song Dynasty (960–1127 CE), [4] and after centuries of unchecked assimilation, the enclave became religiously extinct sometime after the last Rabbi with knowledge of Hebrew died around 1800, [5] during the Qing Dynasty (1644–1911 CE). Joel has simply taken some artistic license by setting these events during the Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE). Also, the novel is full of historical Jewish sages and people that Xuanzang and his companions come to meet and/or learn from over the course of their journey. These include Eliezer ben Hurcanus, Yehoshua ben Hananiah, Akiva ben Joseph, Elisha ben Abuyah, Simeon ben Azzai, Simeon ben Zoma, Honi HaMe’agel, Shimon bar Yochai and his son Eleazar ben Shimon, Hillel the Elder, Rav Nachman bar Yaakov and his wife Lady Yalta, Rav Sheshet, Yohanan ben Zakkai, Shimon ben Lakish, Rabbi Tarfon, Judah ha-Nasi, Rabbi Meir and his wife Bruriah, and others. One of my favorite historical moments happens in “Wine,” when Monkey helps an enraged Lady Yalta attain catharsis by prompting her to smash hundreds of casks in a wine cellar after being slighted by her husband’s house guest (Bigman, 2024, pp. 138-140). Another happens in “Mother,” when Sun smashes a vase at the behest of Xuanzang in order to snap grieving disciples out of their ceaseless prayers, which are keeping ailing Rabbi Judah from dying (Bigman, 2024, pp. 165-167). Inserting our heroes into these Talmudic stories is an ingenious way of making the pilgrims feel that much more real, like they are being pulled out of myth and thrust into the real world.

JTTW is full of enlightened beings, gods, immortals, and demons and ghosts that can fly and wield spells and mystic objects for benign or malevolent purposes. The Second Journey also features magic. I can’t continue without first acknowledging that the historical Jews listed above actually lived centuries before Xuanzang was even born—something that informed readers may have already figured out. This means that the story follows a dreamlike timeline where the group magically flows like water between their present, the early Talmudic period (70–638 CE), and the distant Exodus Period, freely interacting with sages, prophets, patriarchs, and even God himself along the way. [6] Some of these Jewish holy men have mystical adventures of their own, such as in “Orchard” when Rabbi Akiva and others fly on a flaming chariot to the “Orchard of mystical knowledge” in order to discuss spiritual matters with wise men-cum-divine beings, or in “Slow Cart” when Sage Honi, a biblical rain-maker, is transported in his dreams to the past events of JTTW chapter 46, where he takes part in a rain-making competition against a Daoist animal-spirit (Bigman, 2024, pp. 56-62 and 99-104). And of course no JTTW story would be complete without Monkey showing off his magic powers. One of the more inventive uses of his abilities happens in a particular chapter where the titanic, golem-like angel Gabriel produces a giant clay sword from his thigh, and Monkey uses the intense spiritual flames inside his divine body to carburize it into a fine steel blade (Bigman, 2024, pp. 79). You’ll have to read the book to see how the weapon is used.

The original story is set in a world where Buddhism, Daoism, and Confucianism live in harmony with one another. The sequel also features such religious pluralism. In “Kaifeng,” Guanyin explains that she is sending the Tang Monk to the Western lands in order to save the Kaifeng Jews from being completely absorbed by Chinese culture. And in order to accomplish this, Xuanzang must bring foreign knowledge back to the Eastern lands, referring to it as “[s]eeds that may grow into something new” (Bigman, 2024, p. 11). As mentioned above, “Orchard” sees Jewish sages travel to a mystical orchard, where they converse with wise country folk, who are in actuality the Jade Emperor and Laozi (Bigman, 2024, pp. 59-62). This implies that even Jewish holy men can benefit from the knowledge of the East. A third example takes the form of the novel’s two-fold world system, where the Eastern and Western lands are two distinct realms overseen by the Jade Emperor and God, respectively. The reader first learns about this partitioned cosmos in “Oven” when Monkey seeks Guanyin’s aid in order to facilitate a biblical miracle:

In the past, you have received help in battling demons, either from myself, or from other celestial beings. But in this case, even the Jade Emperor cannot help you. These [Western] lands are too far away from our realm. You must ask for help from the emperor in a different heaven, in the Far Western Heaven […] He is Olam-Tzu, World-Master. The westerners call him Ribbono Shel Olam. You’ll have to find your own way to his heaven (Bigman, 2024, p. 36).

JTTW is full of humor, my favorite episode being when Monkey tricks three animal-spirits into drinking “elixir” which is actually the disciples’ stinky urine (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, pp. 286-287). BWAHAHAHA!!! The Second Journey also has its funny moments. In “The Other,” we learn our heroes have melodious snores:

Our friends woke up late the following morning; only Xuanzang woke up before noon. There was a whole chorus of snoring, led by the renowned soloist Pigsy, accompanied by Bear, their Foreign Guide, and our dear Monkey (Bigman, 2024, p. 187).

My absolute favorite comical moment happens in “Karma,” when Sage Sheshet warns Zhu that his over indulgence of Sabbath stew will come back to haunt him. And sure enough, after eating eighteen bowls worth, horrible stomach pains wake him from his afternoon nap. This causes him to worry that he has once again become magically pregnant like in chapter 53 of the original. But instead of relying on magic abortion water this time to end his suffering, his problem is solved by ripping nasty, giant farts (Bigman, 2024, pp. 145 and 148-150).

Beyond cultural and religious differences, the only applicable element that contrasts with JTTW is that Historic Palestine is said to be free of monsters (Bigman, 2024, pp. 46 and 109, for example). Monkey does briefly tangle with some biblical baddies in the sequel, but they are separated from the human world and therefore do not pose an immediate threat to the Tang Monk. This lack of action might be a little depressing for fans of the original, but readers should understand that both books serve different purposes. JTTW is chocked full of spirits that act as both merit-building obstacles and cultivation-facilitating illusions of the mind. These act as metaphors for the journey towards Buddhist enlightenment. However, such concepts aren’t needed in The Second Journey since Joel tells me that the point of the book is to introduce readers to Jewish culture and history via the medium of Xuanzang’s quest to find a teacher. Therefore, our heroes spend the majority of the story learning local beliefs and customs, listening to biblical tales, and acting as casual observers of Jewish religious history as it unfolds during their time travels. Entering the book with this knowledge should make it more enjoyable.

2.2. Suggestions

The book’s version of Xuanzang is an amalgam of his historical and literary counterparts. While this generally meshes well within the more realistic context of Historic Palestine, it does cause a problem in one particular instance. In “Bandits,” the pilgrims are accosted on the road by a group of highwaymen, and after their Daoist immortal-looking leader neutralizes Sun, Zhu, and Bear with a magic net, they choose the Tang Monk and a temporary travel companion as sacrifices to the Hindu goddess Durga. But a mysterious, powerful wind sent from heaven causes them to change their minds. The bandit leader is eventually revealed to be a Jew with a shady past who would go on to become a great holy man (Bigman, 2024, pp. 152-156). The problem is that the attempted sacrifice supposedly happened to the historical Xuanzang in India while sailing down the Ganges River (Huili & Shi, 1995, pp. 76-78). Recall that the historical Sage Honi travels back in time to past events from JTTW in “Slow Cart,” but this happens in his dreams. The episode under discussion is different because a historical event from India—which should have already happened to our composit Xuanzang—has been transposed onto Historic Palestine. It’s so out of place that it took me out of the story at that moment. The same can be said about a Daoist Jew leading a group of Hindu bandits in the Levant. I understand that Joel was trying to manufacture tension here, but he could have come up with an original group of bandits, and that way, Xuanzang could liken the experience to the one he had in India years prior. Or better still, the event could be likened to the Tang Monk’s experience in JTTW chapter 56 when Monkey is kicked out of the group for killing brigands, including beheading the wayward son of a local elderly couple (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, pp. 88-90). Perhaps Sun is put into a similar situation in the sequel where he could easily kill, but he doesn’t, thereby showing his master that he has internalized restraint.

And lastly, beyond fixing some minor issues, [7] the book would benefit from adding a glossary or footnotes to explain the names and significance of the various Jewish personages featured in the narrative. Joel told me that he “didn’t want to make it too ‘educational,’ like lecturing at the reader,” but non-Jews like myself who lack an extensive knowledge of Jewish religious history will no doubt be lost without some kind of guide. Having one would, therefore, make the novel far more accessible and enjoyable to a wider audience. As evidence of this, I actually read the book twice for this review, and I found that I enjoyed it more the second time around after having looked up info about the historical people and events.

3. My rating

I give The Second Journey four and a half out of five stars. The book is well-written, with smooth and oftentimes thought-provoking dialogue. The worldbuilding is very creative and yet still respectful to both Jewish beliefs and Chinese mythos. It’s definitely a great way to introduce someone to Jewish culture and religious history via Journey to the West. I highly recommend it!

Notes:

1) I read the Kindle version for this review. My thanks to Joel for giving me an advanced copy.

2) This was based on Weisz (2006), who shows that the Kaifeng Jews reference Yue Fei’s famous patriotic back tattoo, “Serve the country with utmost loyalty” (Jinzhang baoguo, 盡忠報國), in two of three main stone monuments erected in 1489, 1512, and 1663. The first mention appears in a section of the 1489 stele:

[…]

They received kindness from the Prince,
Lived on the income from the Prince
(They) only exerted in prayers To inform Heaven of their sincerity
Which meant “Boundless loyalty to the country and Prince.” (emphasis added)
May the Great Emperor of the Ming
His virtue surpass that of Yu and Tang
and His Highness that of Yao and Xun (Weisz, 2006, p. 18).

[…]

… 受君之恩食君之祿惟盡禮拜告天之誠報國忠君之意祝頌大明皇上德邁禹湯聖並堯舜 … (White, 1966, p. 38; see also the punctuated version).

The second is in a section of the 1512 stele:

[…]

Look at today.
If those who initiated subjects to study
And “brought glory to one’s parents
And became celebrated”
They had made it.
If those who arranged order among China and foreigners and were loyal to the Prince and benefited the people, they had made it.
Or, those who subdued the enemy and resisted aggression
And where “boundlessly loyal to the country” (emphasis added)
They had made it (Weisz, 2006, p. 26).

[…]

… 今日若進取科目而顯親揚名者有之若布列中外而致君澤民者有之或折衝禦侮而盡忠報國者有 … (White, 1966, p. 53; see also the punctuated version).

3) This is per the book’s blurb:

The World’s first Chinese-Jewish Historical Fantasy.

The Tang Monk Xuanzang along with Monkey and Pigsy famously brought the Buddhist scriptures back to China. Now the trio go on a new adventure to get the Hebrew Scriptures. The strongman Bear joins them as they face new monsters and new challenges, and finally reach a land filled with hundreds of foreign sages, yet only one god. The search for a teacher willing to come back to China is difficult, but a talking donkey helps solve the problem.

A fresh parable linking the Chinese classic story with the worlds of Western Asia and Roman Palestine, The Second Journey brings together the cultures, myths and philosophies of all Asia.

4) See my two-part article (here and here) summarizing theories about when the Kaifeng Jews first came to China.

5) Writing in 1850 CE, a Chinese protestant delegate sent to Kaifeng reported:

The present neglect of the Jewish religion is due to the fact that for these fifty years, there has been no one to instruct the members in the knowledge of the fifty-three sections of the Divine Scriptures, and in the twenty-seven [sic] letters of the Jewish alphabet (White, 1966, p. 116).

“These fifty years” implies that the last rabbi died around 1800 CE.

6) Beyond a mention of a specific “magic time traveling cave” in “Cave” (Bigman, 2024, p. 112), the reason for their time-jumping is never openly explained in the narrative. But Joel notes in his “Afterward” that he did this just so the Tang Monk could meet famous Jewish holy men (Bigman, 2024, p. 260).

7) The first minor issue is plot holes. For example, in “Kaifeng,” after being asked by Xuanzang to be his guide, Bear exclaims: “I have always wanted to go west, to where my people came from. I’ll gladly join you!” (Bigman, 2024, p. 19). But despite having never gone there, he spends the rest of the story expertly guiding the group throughout Historic Palestine like he’s intimately familiar with the routes, towns, and people. Another is that the pilgrims are able to understand spoken Hebrew without the narrative ever mentioning when they first started learning it. For instance, in “Oven,” Sun Wukong understands a debate between Jewish sages: “Old Monkey listened carefully and while it was hard to follow, the question seemed to be whether this specific oven was ritually pure or impure, or maybe whether it could become impure or not” (Bigman, 2024, p. 32). He goes on to use his magic to produce biblical miracles that support one holy man’s exclamations of truth (Bigman, 2024, pp. 34-35). In “Angels,” Bear claims out of nowhere that Xuanzang has been “learn[ing] their language, at least a bit,” and the Tang Monk shortly thereafter speaks to Moses with “accented formal Hebrew” (Bigman, 2024, p. 47). Official Hebrew lessons (in this case reading) are not mentioned until “Mother” (Bigman, 2024, p. 158). A lesser plot hole appears at the end of a particular chapter where Monkey rolls up the recently flayed hide of a biblical baddie on his staff, shrinks it, and stores it to never be seen again (Bigman, 2024, p. 80). I would have liked to have seen the skin play a part in another episode, perhaps serving as a magic blanket or being tailored into a magic robe.

The second minor issue is inconsistency. For instance, in “Kaifeng,” the sequel states that Monkey’s magic staff weighs 17,500 jin (22,762.73 lbs./10,325 kg), but “Oven” changes this to the novel accurate number of 13,500 jin (17,560 lbs./7,965 kg) (Bigman, 2024, pp. 17 and 35). “Leviathan” ups this to an astounding 54,000 jin (70,239.28 lbs./31,860 kg), and then “Skip” sees Sun hand the weapon to Moses, who picks it up with ease (Bigman, 2024, pp. 73 and 183). So, either the prophet is crazy strong, or Joel forgot how much the weapon weighs.

The third minor issue is typos. The book could do with an additional copy edit. I’ve alerted Joel to the misprints I noticed during my readings (please forgive any typos that are overlooked in this article).

Sources:

Bigman, J. (2024). The Second Journey. Hong Kong: Earnshaw Books Ltd. Retrieved from https://www.amazon.com/Second-Journey-Joel-Bigman/dp/9888843702.

Buswell, R. E. , & Lopez, D. S. (2014). The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Huili, & Shi, Y. (1995). A Biography of the Tripitaka Master of the Great Ci’en Monastery of the Great Tang Dynasty (L. Rongxi Trans.). Berkeley, CA: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research. Retrieved from https://www.bdkamerica.org/product/a-biography-of-the-tripitaka-master-of-the-great-cien-monastery/.

Weisz, T. (2006). The Kaifeng Stone Inscriptions: The Legacy of the Jewish Community in Ancient China. Bloomington, IN: iUniverse.

White, W. C. (1966). Chinese Jews: A Compilation of Matters Relating to the Jews of K’ai-fêng Fu (2nd ed.). Canada: University of Toronto Press. Retrieved from https://archive.org/details/lccn_66026456/mode/2up.

Buddhist Deities Exiled From the Western Heaven in Chinese Vernacular Literature

Jim R. McClanahan Leave a comment

Last updated: 1-25-2025

Anyone who has read Journey to the West (Xiyouji, 西遊記, 1592) will know that the Tang monk Tripitaka (Tang Sanzang, 唐三藏; a.k.a. Xuanzang) is said to be an incarnation of Master Golden Cicada (Jinchan zi, 金蟬子), the Buddha’s second disciple. The full picture of his past can be pieced together from verse and character dialogue throughout the narrative. This culminates with the Tathagata‘s explanation in chapter 100:

Because you failed to listen to my exposition of the law and slighted my great teaching, your true spirit was banished to find another incarnation in the Land of the East [i.e. China]. Happily you submitted and, by remaining faithful to our teaching, succeeded in acquiring the true scriptures (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 4, p. 381).

因為汝不聽說法，輕慢我之大教，故貶汝之真靈，轉生東土。今喜皈依，秉我迦持，又乘吾教，取去真經 …

In the course of my research, I’ve come across two other examples of Buddhist deities from Ming-Qing Chinese vernacular literature that are exiled from the Western Heaven. In this article, I would like to highlight these stories, as well as analyze them alongside Master Golden Cicada’s tale to record parallels. It’s important to note that all examples are connected to the Journey to the West story cycle. Finally, I will show that the presented examples share similarities with Greek philosophy.

I wrote this to better understand how the story of Master Golden Cicada’s exile may have come about.

1. Master Golden Cicada

For the record, the fullest account of Tripitaka’s past is described by Sun Wukong in chapter 81:

“You don’t realize that Master was the second disciple of our Buddha Tathagata, and originally he was called Elder Gold Cicada. Because he slighted the Law, he was fated to experience this great ordeal.”

“Elder Brother,” said Eight Rules, “even if Master did slight the Law, he had already been banished back to the Land of the East where he took on human form in the field of slander and the sea of strife. After he made his vow to worship Buddha and seek scriptures in the Western Heaven, he was bound whenever he ran into monster-spirits and he was hung high whenever he met up with demons. Hasn’t he suffered enough? “Why must he endure sickness as well?”

“You wouldn’t know about this,” replied Pilgrim. “Our old master fell asleep while listening to Buddha expounding the Law [fig. 1]. As he slumped to one side, his left foot kicked down one grain of rice. That is why he is fated to suffer three days’ illness after he has arrived at the Region Below.” [1]

Horrified, Eight Rules said, “The way old Hog sprays and splatters things all over when he eats, I wonder how many years of illness I’d have to go through!”

“Brother,” said Pilgrim, “you have no idea either that the Buddha is not that concerned with you and other creatures. But as people say:

Rice stalks planted in noonday sun
Take root as perspiration runs.
Who knows of this food from the soil
Each grain requires most bitter toil?

Master still has one more day to go, but he’ll be better by tomorrow” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 4, p. 82).

你不知道。師父是我佛如來第二個徒弟，原叫做金蟬長老，只因他輕慢佛法，該有這場大難。」八戒道：「哥啊，師父既是輕慢佛法，貶回東土，在是非海內，口舌場中，託化做人身，發願往西天拜佛求經，遇妖精就捆，逢魔頭就吊，受諸苦惱，也夠了，怎麼又叫他害病？」行者道：「你那裡曉得。老師父不曾聽佛講法，打了一個盹，往下一試，左腳屣了一粒米，下界來，該有這三日病。」八戒驚道：「像老豬吃東西潑潑撒撒的，也不知害多少年代病是。」行者道：「兄弟，佛不與你眾生為念，你又不知。人云：『鋤禾日當午，汗滴禾下土。誰知盤中餐，粒粒皆辛苦。』師父只今日一日，明日就好了。」

Fig. 1 – Master Golden Cicada falls asleep during the Buddha’s sermon (larger version). Screenshot from episode one of the 1996 Journey to the West TV show.

2. Miao Jixiang

Miao Jixiang (妙吉祥) is a former oil lamp-turned-humanoid Buddhist disciple who briefly appears in chapter one of Journey to the South (Nanyouji, 南遊記, c. 1570s-1580s). He is exiled from the Western Heaven for using his holy flame to kill a belligerent sage. But Miao escapes underworld punishment thanks to the intervention of the Bodhisattva Guanyin. He is later reborn in China as a number of figures, most famously the popular martial deity Huaguang dadi (華光大帝; variously translated as “Great Emperor of Flowery/Resplendent/Magnificent/Majestic Light”):

That Great King of the Single Flame [Duhuo dawang, 独火大王] … wanted to incinerate Spirit Mountain. Fortunately, the Tathagata foresaw this with his all-seeing eyes, and so he recited a mantra, summoning five hundred dragons that brought forth dew and fog to cover the mountain.

Unable to unleash his fire, this Single-Flame demon became angry, rampaging to the left and right of the temple and hurling insults.

Miao Jixiang [2] offered a word of advice, “You are not the same caliber of wisdom as we Buddhist disciples. You can leave if you want; it makes no difference.”

“If you enrage my heart-mind, I will burn your dog bones to death!” replied the Great King of the Single Flame.

Miao Jixiang laughed, “You can only burn others. You can never burn me. If you can burn me, I will acknowledge you as superior.”

Anger racing through him, the Great King set loose his Fire of the Five Dippers, but Miao Jixiang remained perfectly still.

He laughed, “You monster, how could your fire burn me? I used to be the oil lamp before the Tathagata’s Dharma Hall, burning brilliantly day and night, listening to the sutras, and inquiring about the Dharma. I have accumulated many candle wicks during this time. But one day, Tathagata recited a spell and bestowed onto me a human body. With my appearance, spirit, hearing, and origins all arising from fire, how could you burn me? You monster, if you continue to harass our Spirit Mountain and cause us unease, I will inevitably bring forth my Perfected Fire of Samadhi to burn you monster to death, so as to avoid any future troubles.”

Watching this with his all-seeing eyes, the Tathagata was about to stop Miao Jixiang, but the latter had already unleashed his fire and burned that damnable Single Flame to death [fig. 2].

Furious, the Tathagata summoned heavenly generals to arrest Miao Jixiang, “You beast, how dare you break my precepts?” Tathagata scolded. “Although he is wrong, you and I are Buddhists (chujia zhi ren, 出家之人, lit: “people who have left their families”); we’re supposed to be infinitely merciful. Why did you burn him to death? Such an act is intolerable by the Buddhist Dharma. I shall banish you to the underworld (yinshan, 陰山; lit: “mountain of yin/darkness”) to suffer.”

Miao Jixiang begged for forgiveness.

The Reverend Mother Guanyin came forward from one said to defend him by saying, “Although he is guilty, Miao Jixiang is a disciple of Spirit Mountain. He should not be banished to the underworld. When he was still alive, the Great King of Horse-Ear Mountain approached our Spirit Mountain to pray for a son. Now that his wife is pregnant, why not send Miao Jixiang to be reincarnated as her son? After Miao Jixiang goes through this catastrophe, he shall be allowed to return to Spirit Mountain and serve the Master. Why not do this?”

Nodding, Tathagata was about to send Miao Jixiang away.

“My master, you order me to reincarnate,” Miao Jixiang said in tears, “but if I am deprived of the Divine Way, I am afraid that I will be bullied.”

Sitting atop his treasured throne, Tathagata recited a spell, “I shall now bestow you with the five supernatural powers: the heaven power, with which you can travel freely to heaven; the earth power, with which the earth will crack by itself if you want to get inside; the wind power, with which you are shadowless in the wind; the water power, with which you can travel without any obstacle in water; the fire power, with which you feel ease in the fire.”

Tathagata pointed his dharma finger at Miao Jixiang’s forehead, saying, “I will also bestow you with a heavenly eye, with which you can see all across the three realms.”

Tathagata ordered the Reverend Mother Guanyin to deliver Miao Jixiang to his reincarnation (adapted from pp. 10-11 of this PDF).

那大王 … 即要放火烧灵山。幸如来慧眼一见，便念动咒语，放出五百条逆龙，涌起露雾罩住灵山，此火便不能发。独火鬼见火不发，十分著恼，于寺中左冲右撞，出言不逊，妙吉祥进言曰：「我们佛家弟子，亦不比你见识，你可去也罢。」独火大王曰：「恼得我心一边来，把你这狗骨头亦将来烧死。」妙吉祥笑曰：「你的火只好烧别人，烧得我不成；你若烧得我，便见你高。」大王怒起，就放出五斗火，便烧吉祥，吉祥端然不动。笑曰：「你这妖怪，你那火如何烧得我？我乃如来法堂前一盏油灯，昼夜煌煌，听经问法，灯花堆积，一日如来念咒，咒成人身。我这火之相，火之灵，火之听，火之起，你焉能烧我？你这妖怪，今你若再在整日闹我灵山，不得自在，我不免请出三昧真火，烧死你这妖怪，免致后患。」如来慧眼看见，便叫不可之时，独火鬼已被他烧死在地。如来大怒，喝声叫将妙吉祥拿下，责曰：「你这畜生如何敢破我戒？他虽不是，我你俱出家之人，当大慈大悲终是，为何将他烧死？佛法难容，贬去阴山受罪。」吉祥告饶。观音老母在旁保曰：「妙吉祥虽然有罪，乃灵山弟子，不可贬去阴山。当日马耳山大王在日之时，来我灵山祈嗣。今日那娘娘有孕有身，不如送去投胎，等他大难满日，取回灵山，伏侍师父，何不可也。」如来依言，便欲送去。吉祥流泪告曰：「师父命我投胎，奈我不晓神道，恐后被人欺负。」如来于宝座中，念动咒语，说：「我就赐你五通：你一通天，天中自行；二通地，地赶自裂；三通风，风中无影；四通水，水中无碍；五通火，火里自在。」又用法手一指顶门：「赐你一个天眼挪门，可见三界。」就叫观音老母送去投胎。

Fig. 2 – Miao Jixiang kills the Great King of the Single Flame (larger version). From a modern lianhuanhua comic. Image found here. 

3. The Great Peng

The Complete Vernacular Biography of Yue Fei (Shuo Yue quanzhuan, 說岳全傳, 1684) depicts the Great Peng, the Golden-Winged King of Illumination (Dapeng jinchi mingwang, 大鵬金翅明王), [3] as a hot-tempered avian dharma protector stationed above the Buddha’s head (fig. 3). He is exiled from the Western Heaven for killing a bat-spirit who farts during the Buddha’s sermon, and the bird is later reborn in China as the famed Song-era General Yue Fei (岳飛, 1103-1142):

Let’s talk about the Buddha Tathagata at the Great Thunderclap Monastery in the Western Paradise. One day, he sat on a nine-level lotus throne, and the Four Great Bodhisattvas, the Eight Great Vajra Warriors, the five hundred Arhats, the three thousand Heavenly Kings, nuns and monks, male and female attendants, all of the heavenly sages who protect the Dharma, gathered to listen to his lecture on the Lotus Sutra. His words were like flowers and precious jewels raining from the heavens. But, at that time, a star-spirit, the Maiden Earth Bat, who had been listening to the lecture from beneath the lotus throne, couldn’t bear it any longer and unexpectedly let out a stinky fart.

The Buddha was a great, merciful lord, so he didn’t mind even the slightest bit. But don’t console the Dharma protector above his head, [4] the “Great Peng, the Golden-Winged King of Illumination,” whose eyes shone with golden light and whose back was a scene of auspiciousness. He became angry when he saw the nasty, filthy Maiden Earth Bat, and so he unfurled both his wings and dropped down to kill the spirit by pecking her on the head. The light-point of her soul shot out of the Great Thunderclap Monastery and went to the Lands of the East (China) in the world below to find a mother and reincarnate. She was reborn as a daughter of the Wang clan. She would later marry the Song Prime minister Qin Hui (1091-1155) and come to cruelly kill the righteous (Yue Fei) as a means to get revenge against today’s enemy. We will talk about this later.

Let’s return to the Buddha, who saw what happened with his all-seeing eyes and exclaimed, “Good! Good! It turns out that this is an episode of karma (cause and effect).” Then he called the Great Peng bird to come closer and shouted, “You evil creature! You already took refuge in my teachings. How can you not follow the five precepts by daring to commit such a horrible crime? I don’t need you here; you will descend to the mortal world to pay off your (karmic) debt and wait until you have fulfilled your work. Once that is completed, only then will I allow you to return to the mountain to achieve the right fruit (Buddhist merit).” The Great Peng complied with the decree, flying out of the Great Thunderclap Monastery directly to the Lands of the East to be reincarnated. We will stop here (translated by the author).

且說西方極樂世界大雷音寺我佛如來，一日端坐九品蓮臺，旁列著四大菩薩、八大金剛、五百羅漢、三千偈諦、比丘尼、比丘僧、優婆夷、優婆塞，共諸天護法聖眾，齊聽講說妙法真經。正說得天花亂墜、寶雨繽紛之際，不期有一位星官，乃是女土蝠，偶在蓮臺之下聽講，一時忍不住，撒出一個臭屁來。我佛原是個大慈大悲之主，毫不在意。不道惱了佛頂上頭一位護法神祗，名為大鵬金翅明王，眼射金光，背呈祥瑞，見那女土蝠污穢不潔，不覺大怒，展開雙翅落下來，望著女土蝠頭上，這一嘴就啄死了。那女土蝠一點靈光射出雷音寺，徑往東土認母投胎，在下界王門為女，後來嫁與秦檜為妻，殘害忠良，以報今日之讎。此是後話，按下不提。

且說佛爺將慧眼一觀，口稱：「善哉，善哉！原來有此一段因果。」即喚大鵬鳥近前，喝道：「你這孽畜！既歸我教，怎不皈依五戒，輒敢如此行兇？我這裡用你不著，今將你降落紅塵，償還冤債，直待功成行滿，方許你歸山，再成正果。」大鵬鳥遵了法旨，飛出雷音寺，徑來東土投胎不表。

Fig. 3 – Detail of an altar to the Great Peng, the Golden-Winged King of Illumination (larger version). Full image found here.

4. Analysis

There are four parallels shared between these stories. First, each character is exiled for disrespecting the Buddha. Master Golden Cicada falls asleep during the Tathagata’s sermon. Miao Jixiang kills a belligerent sage on the grounds of the Thunderclap Monastery. And the Great Peng kills the Maiden Earth Bat in the same hallowed place during the Buddha’s lecture. The latter two examples are similar in that both characters are admonished by the Tathagata for breaking the precept against killing. For the former, the Buddha exclaims, “You beast, how dare you break my precepts? … Such an act is intolerable by the Buddhist Dharma” (你這畜生如何敢破我戒？… 佛法難容). And for the latter, he screams, “You evil creature! You already took refuge in my teachings. How can you not follow the five precepts by daring to commit such a horrible crime?” (你這孽畜！既歸我教，怎不皈依五戒，輒敢如此行兇？). Admittedly, these acts make Master Golden Cicada’s sleeping far less serious in comparison.

Second, each is exiled from the Western Heaven in India to be reborn as a hero in China. Master Golden Cicada lives out a number of pious incarnations before his final life as Tripitaka, a learned monk who procures scriptures needed to release untold numbers of orphaned souls from the underworld. Miao Jixiang experiences several adventurous incarnations before his final life as Huaguang dadi, a martial deity who rids the world of evil spirits. And the Great Peng is reborn as Song Dynasty General Yue Fei, a patriot who fights against invading Jurchen forces which threaten the Middle Kingdom.

Third, all are exiled with the understanding that they will return once they have accumulated enough Buddhist merit and/or paid off a karmic debt. This is more implied in Master Golden Cicada/Tripitaka’s case when the Buddha reveals his past transgression and then grants him an elevation in spiritual rank to an enlightened being, thereby allowing him to return to the Western Heaven at the end of his story arc (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 4, p. 381). Whereas with Miao Jixiang, this is openly suggested by Guanyin: “After [he] goes through this catastrophe, he shall be allowed to return to Spirit Mountain and serve the Master. Why not do this?” (等他大难满日，取回灵山，伏侍师父，何不可也。) The Tathagata agrees to this arrangement. As for the Great Peng, the Buddha states,

[Y]ou will descend to the mortal world to pay off your (karmic) debt and wait until you have fulfilled your work. Once that is completed, only then will I allow you to return to the mountain to achieve the right fruit (Buddhist merit).

今將你降落紅塵，償還冤債，直待功成行滿，方許你歸山，再成正果。

And fourth, all are connected to the Journey to the West story cycle. For instance, in chapter one of Journey to the South (c. 1570s-1580s), “Pilgrim Sun” (Sun xingzhe, 孫行者; i.e. Sun Wukong) wins first place in a competition between the gods of the Buddho-Daoist pantheon to see who owns the greatest celestial treasure (see pp. 6-7 of this PDF). And in chapter 17, Monkey fights Miao Jixiang’s reincarnation, Huaguang dadi, because the latter framed the former for the theft of immortal peaches. The Great Sage initially wins the encounter, but he is unexpectantly burned at the last minute, leaving his non-canonical daughter to finish the fight (see pp. 107-110 of this PDF). And the Great Peng originally appears as a demon king named the “Peng of Ten Thousand Cloudy Miles” (Yuncheng wanli peng, 雲程萬里鵬) in chapters 74 to 77 of Journey to the West (1592). At the end of his arc, he is trapped above the Buddha’s head (fig. 4):

Perceiving the Peng’s intentions, Tathagata produced a golden light and, facing the wind, and gave his head (which had once supported the nests of magpies) a shake. The head changed at once into a piece of meat dripping with fresh blood. Stretching out his claws, the monster-spirit drew near and tried to clutch at the piece of meat. Our Father Buddha pointed at him with his finger and immediately the monster-spirit felt such cramps throughout his huge wings that he could not fly away. He was trapped above the Buddha’s head in his true form: the Great Peng, a golden-winged eagle [fig. 4] (based on Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 4, p. 31).

如來情知此意，即閃金光，把那鵲巢貫頂之頭迎風一幌，變做鮮紅的一塊血肉。妖精掄利爪叼他一下。被佛爺把手往上一指，那妖翅膊上就了筋，飛不去，只在佛頂上不能遠遁，現了本相，乃是一個大鵬金翅鵰。

The Great Peng later begrudgingly agrees to submit to Buddhism (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 4, p. 31). Therefore, this explains his lofty position in The Complete Vernacular Biography of Yue Fei (1684).

Fig. 4 – The Great Peng trapped above the Buddha’s head (larger version). From Chen Huiguan’s Newly Illustrated and Complete Journey to the West (Chen Huiguan Xinhui Quanben Xiyouji, 陈惠冠新绘全本西游记, 2001).

5. Similarities to Western Philosophy

McEvilley (2002) comments that the Greek philosopher Empedocles (5th-c. BCE) wrote of gods being exiled for ten thousand years for the crime of murder or lying under oath. The fallen deity was believed to reincarnate into every creature of land, air, and sea, and when their long punishment was over, they were reborn in their last life as a person of high culture, such as royalty, religious leaders, and scholars. They then returned to their former heavenly station upon death (McEvilley, 2002, pp. 106-107). These beliefs mirror the misdeeds (sleeping and murder), exile from heaven, experience of reincarnation, and then eventual return to heaven of Master Golden Cicada, Miao Jixiang, and the Great Peng. These similarities likely point to a broader concept in Greco-Indian philosophy that made its way into Chinese vernacular fiction.

Update: 01-25-25

I have suggested that a historical disciple of the Buddha influenced the episode of Master Golden Cicada falling asleep. See 01-25-25 update here:

The Monk Tripitaka and the Golden Cicada

Notes:

1) Tripitaka’s additional punishment points to the supreme importance of rice in an agrarian society like ancient China.

2) Miao Jixiang should not be confused with the Bodhisattva Manjushri, who has the same Chinese name in some older Buddhist literature (Von Glahn, 2004, p. 214).

3) The mingwang (明王, “illumination king”) of the Great Peng’s Buddhist title could also mean “wisdom king,” which refers to spiritual knowledge.

4) My previous article traces the religious motif of a bird (Garuda) hovering above the heads of Buddhist personages to Hindo-Buddhist architecture in ancient India.

Sources:

McEvilley, T. (2002). The Shape of Ancient Thought: Comparative Studies in Greek and Indian Philosophies. New York: Allworth.

Von Glahn, R. (2004). The Sinister Way: The Divine and the Demonic in Chinese Religious Culture. United Kingdom: University of California Press.

Wu, C., & Yu, A. C. (2012). The Journey to the West (Vols. 1-4) (Rev. ed.). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press.