Tag 如意

The Monkey King’s Crescent-Style Headband

Jim R. McClanahan 2 Comments

Various forms of media portray Sun Wukong wearing three types of golden headbands (jingu, 金箍; a.k.a. jingu, 緊箍, lit: “tight fillet”). The first has blunt ends that meet in the middle of the forehead and curl upwards like a pair of scowling eyebrows. The second has an upturned crescent moon shape in the center. And the third is just a thin fillet devoid of any adornment (fig. 1). This article will briefly discuss the origins of type two, what I call the “crescent-style” headband.

Fig. 1 – Type 1 (left): Curlicue. From the comedy A Chinese Odyssey Part Two: Cinderella (1995); Type 2 (center): Crescent. From the famous 1986 CCTV series; and Type 3 (right): Thin band. From the 2011 TV show (larger version).

I. Ties to the stage

The type two headband is heavily associated with Liu Xiao Ling Tong‘s (六小齡童; a.k.a. Zhang Jinlai, 章金萊, b. 1959) portrayal of the Monkey King from the famed 1986 CCTV series. This actor comes from a long line of Chinese opera performers who specialize in playing Sun Wukong. It should be no surprise then that the type of circlet that he wears comes directly from Chinese opera. Known as a “precepts headband” (jiegu, 戒箍), this fillet is worn on stage by Military Monks (wuseng, 武僧) as a sign that they’ve taken a vow of abstinence (Bonds, 2008, pp. 177-178 and 328). Such clerics are depicted as wearing a jiegu in combination with a wild mane of hair (fig. 2), which contrasts with the bald heads of religious monks.

Fig. 2 – A detail of the literary hero and military monk Wu Song from a Chinese opera about his adventures (larger version). Full version available on Wikimedia Commons.

II. Appearance in zaju theater

To my knowledge, the oldest source associating Sun with the precepts headband is an early-Ming zaju play that predates the standard 1592 edition of Journey to the West. In act ten, the Bodhisattva Guanyin tells Monkey:

Great Sage Reaching Heaven [a previous title for Sun], you originally destroyed form and extinguished nature, but the honored monk saved you. This time, you will cease your desires. I give you the dharma name Sun Wukong, as well as an iron precepts headband [tie jiegu, 鐵戒箍], a black monk’s robe, and a precepts knife. [1] The iron headband will guard your nature, the robe will cover your beastly body, and the knife will cut your relations. If you want to go with your master, then you will be called Pilgrim Sun. Swiftly obtain the scriptures and seek the right fruit.

通天大聖，你本是毀形滅性的，老僧救了你，今次休起凡心。我與你一個法名，是孫悟空。與你個鐵戒箍、皂直裰、戒刀。鐵戒箍戒你凡性，皂直裰遮你獸身，戒刀豁你之恩愛，好生跟師父去，便喚作孫行者。疾便取經，著你也求正果。

III. Origin

The precepts headband likely finds its origin in the triple-crescent crown of Central Asia. This crown was originally a fixture of Iranic Hephthalite royalty that was later adopted by Sogdian rulers. Zoroastrian gods were even portrayed wearing it. The motif is known to have entered China as early as the 6th-century. For instance, the stone tomb of the Sogdian leader Di Caoming (翟曹明, d. 579) features two foreign-looking, trident-wielding door guardians wearing the crown (fig. 3 & 4). Most importantly, a crown featuring the triple-crescent and wings (also of Hephthalite origin) appears in Chinese Buddhist art, particularly in the headdresses of Bodhisattvas (fig. 5), before, during, and after the Tang and Liang periods (Kageyama, 2007). Therefore, the association of the triple-crescent with guardians and Buddhist deities might then explain why it was later connected to military monks in Chinese opera.

Fig. 3 – Triple-crescent crown-wearing guardians on the door of Di Caoming’s stone tomb (larger version). Fig. 4 – A detail of one of the guardians (larger version). Images found on this tweet. Fig. 5 – A diagram showing the various Bodhisattva crowns featuring the triple-crescent and winged adornments in Chinese Buddhist art (larger version). From Kageyama, 2007, p. 22. [2]

I’m indebted to the art historian Jin Xu (徐津) for posting a tweet about Sino-Sogdian funerary art, which led to him explaining the origin of the precepts headband. [3] I’m also indebted to Eran ud Turan for directing me to a lovely paper on the triple-crescent and winged crowns.

IV. Many influences

This subject is fascinating as it shows how different cultures came to influence the Monkey King’s headband. The general concept of a circlet serving as a physical reminder of right speech and action comes from India, and it was associated with gods in Esoteric Buddhism. The curlicue-style fillet is likely based on Chinese representations of stylized lingzhi (靈芝) mushrooms, which were associated with Daoist deities. And lastly, the crescent-style band is based on the crown of two Iranic cultures, and it was associated with divine beings from Zoroastrianism.

V. Conclusion

Various forms of media portray the Monkey King wearing different kinds of headbands. The second type, which includes an upturned crescent moon shape in the middle of the forehead, is featured in Chinese opera depictions of Sun Wukong. This “precepts headband” (jiegu, 戒箍) is a symbol of military monks, thus linking Monkey to such martial clerics. To my knowledge, the oldest source associating our hero with the jiegu is an early-Ming zaju play in which Guanyin gives Sun an “iron precepts headband” (tie jiegu, 鐵戒箍) (among other items).

This style of circlet was likely influenced by the “triple-crescent crown” used by the Iranic Hephthalite and Sogdian cultures as a symbol of royalty. The motif appeared in China as early as the 6th-century as evidenced by the stone tomb of Di Caoming, which features foreign-looking door guardians wearing the triple-crescent crown. Most importantly, the motif also adorns the crowns of Bodhisattvas during China’s medieval period, which (combined with the aforementioned door guardians) might explain why the crescent came to be associated with military monks in Chinese opera. 

This Iranic crown is one of three cultural threads influencing the function and look of Monkey’s golden headband, the other two coming from India (Esoteric Buddhism) and China (Daoism).

Notes:

1) Precept knives (jiedao, 戒刀) were historically small, unadorned, curved, finger-length blades used for cutting robes, trimming fingernails, opening wounds, or slicing food (Yifa, 2009, p. 250, n. 37).

2) The diagram is labeled thusly in the original paper:

Winged crowns and triple-crescent crowns represented in the Buddhist art of the Northern and Southern Dynasties and the Sui. a, c, e-h: Wall paintings. Dunhuang (Gansu). a: Cave 254 (Northern Wei. Second half of the fifth century or first half of the sixth century), c: Cave 285 (Western Wei. 538-539 CE), e: Cave 276 (Sui. Late sixth or early seventh century), f. Cave 380 (Sui. Late sixth or early seventh century), g. Cave 389 (Sui. Late sixth or early seventh century), h. Cave 407 (Sui. Late sixth or early seventh century). b: Stone sculpture from Wanfo-si 万仏寺. Liang. First half of the sixth century. Chengdu (Sichuan). d. Stone relief from Dazhusheng 大住聖 Cave, Baoshan Lingquan-si 宝山霊泉寺, Anyang. Sui. 589 CE (Kageyama, 2007, p. 22).

3) After asking him a question on the original tweet, Jin Xu replied:

This type of crown is the prototype of Jiegu. It was a headgear favored by Sogdians, as you can see in some pictures taken by @eranudturan. I’m not sure if it had a specific name at the time, but perhaps related to later Persian word “taj” (tweet).

Sources:

Bonds, A. B. (2008). Beijing Opera Costumes: The Visual Communication of Character and Culture. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press.

Kageyama, E. (2007). The Winged Crown and the Triple-crescent Crown in the Sogdian Funerary Monuments from China: Their Relation to the Hephthalite Occupation of Central Asia. Journal of Inner Asian Art and Archaeology, 2, 11-22. Retrieved from https://isaw.nyu.edu/publications/jiaaa/Kageyama.pdf.

Yifa. (2009). The Origins of Buddhist Monastic Codes in China: An Annotated Translation and Study of the Chanyuan Qinggui. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i press.

 

The Monkey King and the “Three-Teachings” (三教) Trinity of Southeast Asia

Jim R. McClanahan 4 Comments

Last updated: 11-07-2024

Ronni Pinsler of the BOXS project recently introduced me to the Huang Lao xianshi (黃老仙師; lit: “Immortal Master Yellow Elder) [1] folk religion sect of Malaysia and Singapore. It features an intriguing trinity with the Monkey King as Dasheng fozu, (大聖佛祖; lit: “Great Sage Buddha Patriarch”) in the center, the aforementioned deity to his right, and Taishang laojun (太上老君; lit: “Most High Elder Lord,” a.k.a. Laozi, 老子) to his left. Combined, they respectively represent Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism. This is shocking as Sun Wukong replaces the Buddha himself as a representative of the “Three Teachings” (sanjiao, 三教). Needless to say, his inclusion here elevates the Monkey King from a mid-tier god to a supreme one.

I. History?

There doesn’t appear to be any concrete information about when the trinity first appeared. The oldest photograph (fig. 1) that I can find hails from 1970s Singapore (per an informant). But this page states that Chee Chung Temple (慈忠庙), followers of the sect, was founded in 1960, showing that it was flourishing as early as this time. However, an informant tells me that the sect is more rare in Singapore these days. Conversely, Ronni notes it’s more common in Malaysia and that the trinity from the photograph looks similar to “twenty or thirty examples” he’s seen while visiting temples in the south. 

Fig. 1 – The 1970s photograph (larger version). Image in a private Malaysian collection.

I’d like to add that the three-person grouping follows precedent in Chinese religion, with examples including the “Sanqing” (Sanqing, 三清; lit: “Three Pure Ones”) of Daoism and the “Trikaya” (Ch: Sanshen, 三身; lit: “Three Bodies”) of Buddhism. These likely influenced the trinity (see below).

I’ll update this section as new information becomes available.

II. Iconography

Dasheng fozu is portrayed with a small guan cap (xiao guan, 小冠) crowning a furry, simian head, and the face is sometimes painted similar to his Chinese opera depictions. He wears a (sometimes golden) suit of armor and sits in a kingly fashion with knees splayed and his hands on his legs. One hand is upturned and loosely cups the handle of an “As-you-will” (ruyi, 如意) scepter, with the mushroom head resting near his shoulder. As noted here, this scepter is a symbol of some Buddhist and Daoist gods, most notably Lingbao tianzun (靈寶天尊, lit: “Celestial Worthy of Numinous Treasure”), one of the Sanqing, and Guanyin (觀音). 

Huang Lao xianshi is portrayed with a small guan cap crowning a smiling, elderly man with drawn back white hair and a long, white beard and mustache. He wears bagua robes (of various colors) and sits in a kingly fashion with knees splayed. And he either holds a fly whisk or command flag in one hand, while the other is sometimes held in a mudra.

Taishang laojun is quite similar to the former (including the guan cap, hair and beard, and bagua clothing), but he’s instead seated cross-legged on a lotus throne. One hand holds a traditional palace fan (gongshan, 宮扇), while the other might delicately hold a pearl.

All three are sometimes depicted in a cave-like alcove over which hangs a sign reading “Zhong xian dong” (眾/衆仙洞; lit: “Multitude of Immortals Cave”) or “Xianfo dong” (仙佛洞, “Immortals and Buddhas Cave”) (fig. 2 & 3).

Fig. 2 – The “Multitude of Immortals Cave” (larger version). This is likely a painting of the idols from figure one. Found on Facebook. Fig. 3 – The “Immortals and Buddhas Cave” (larger version). Found on Facebook.

The trinity appears to have borrowed from depictions of the Sanqing. Take for example this painting (fig. 4). Two of the three figures include the As-you-will scepter and the palace fan.

Fig. 4 – A print of the Sanqing from Werner, 1922, p. 124 (larger version).

III. Huang Lao xianshi

This is not a common deity, so I’ve chosen to quote the BOXS article on the subject. I’ve changed the Wade Giles to pinyin. The information was gathered by Keith Stevens:

[…] His images have been seen on altars in Singapore in Balestier Road, also in Malacca and Kuala Lumpur, in Seremban and Muar, and in southern Thailand, where in each temple he is known as one of the Supreme Trinity .

In Kuala Lumpur where he is regarded as a deity who possesses the spirit mediums of his cult, the Huang jiao [黃教], he is known as an avatar of Laozi. He is said to have first appeared and became popular during the Han dynasty as the Governor of the World but without interfering with its day to day running. […] He was identified as Huang Shigong [黃石公], a patron of Zhang Liang [張良] who in about 200 BC was a trusted counsellor of Liu Bang [劉邦] and is said to have written a work on military tactics, the Sanlue [三略, “Three Strategies”].

Zhang Liang was one of the Three Heroes of China, said to have been a governor of a province during the Han, and according to Taoist legend was one day crossing a bridge of a river when a poor old man on a mule passed by. One of the old man’s sandals fell off into the river and in one version Zhang picked up the sandal of his own volition whilst in another, told by devotees, the old man asked him to pick it up. Zhang feeling a great sense of indignity but moved by pity for the old man picked it up. Then, after several tests Zhang Liang was told by the old man that with the book he had just given to Zhang he would become an adviser to the king. In years to come it came about exactly as foretold, and the old man on the mule turned out to be Huang Lao xianshi.

In these temples Huang Lao xianshi’s annual festival is celebrated on the double sixth [i.e. 6th day of the 6th lunar month]. His image has not been noted in Taiwan, Hong Kong or Macau.

In most temples he is revered for his healing powers, with one sip of water blessed by him curing sickness; it also provides stamina and nerve, and wrestlers and boxers visit his altars to drink his tonic before their matches.

Huang is also known as:

Huang Lao zushi [黃老祖師]

Huang Lao jun [黃老君] (RefNo. W3015).

The article goes on to suggest a possible connection to the Huang-Lao (黃老; “Yellow Emperor-Laozi) school of philosophy.

The Huang Lao school combines the teachings of Huang Di, Laozi, Zhuangzi and Buddhist[s], as well as Confucian[s], developed over the centuries into its own particular form (RefNo. W3015).

This philosophical connection is interesting as one scholar suggests that the Sanlue “was written around the end of the Former Han dynasty, probably by a reclusive adherent of the Huang-Lao school who had expert knowledge of military affairs” (Sawyer & Sawyer, 2007, p. 283). This would explain why Huang Lao’s story is associated with Huang Shigong (“Old Man Yellowstone”). Also, his name might imply that he’s considered an embodiment of this philosophy.

One thing not noted in the BOXS article is that some statues alternatively spell his name as 黃老先師 (Huang Lao xianshi), meaning the “First Teacher Yellow Elder” (see the third section on this page). The term 先師 is a reference to one of Confucius‘ titles (Chin, 2007, p. 13).

Update: 04-01-22

Ronni shared with me a source explaining the birth of Master Yellow Elder’s sect. One webpage claims it came about in 1937 at No. 38 Beer Village of Bahau, Negeri Sembilan, Peninsular Malaysia (马来西亚半岛森美兰州马口三十八啤农村). This might explain why the sect is more popular in Malaysia than Singapore:

At that time, Liao Jun [廖俊] was alone in the hall near the Daoist altar when he became curious about learning spirit-mediumship and spirit-writing. All of a sudden, a spirit entered his body, causing him to sit solemnly while stroking his whiskers and mumbling incomprehensively. He didn’t know what spirit had taken hold of his body or what was being said. Afterwards, Liao woke up but didn’t know anything. After that he requested the spirit to descend everyday but wasn’t able to speak. Later, Mr. Dai Zhao [Dai Zhao xiansheng, 戴招先生], the original owner of the Daoist temple, consecrated him as a new spirit-medium with a seal. He was then able to write messages and finally speak. Until that day when Liao Jun called the spirit, he opened his mouth and preached with strict principles and profound meaning. He said that the Immortal Master came to teach disciples in order to help the world. But he did not reveal his origin.

After a period of Liao calling down the spirit, the gathered crowd questioned the deity. He finally revealed that the Immortal Master Yellow Elder was actually Oldman Yellowstone [Huang shigong, 黃石公], known from legends passed down through the generations. According to the Jade Emperor’s decree, he was to open the dharma gate by preaching his teachings for the universal deliverance of the people.

Those who wish to enter the dharma gate first have to fast for 30 days and then complete the dharma hall ceremony to become a formal disciple. This dharma transforms according to one’s heart and can be used as one desires. Only when it is used in the right way will it be effective. One cannot harbor any evil desires.

All of Immortal Master Yellow Elder’s disciples can worship at home by arranging their own shrine. A memorial tablet must be set up in the center, and the following words must be written: mercy, loyalty, faith, righteousness, rituals, relationships, continence, filial piety, honesty, and right virtue. A sign on the left side must say, “Obey the Way of Heaven with Loyalty,” and on the right, “From the Earth Return to Ceremony.”

Apart from the aforementioned ten precepts, the disciples of the Immortal Master can also draw talismans to exorcise evil spirits from residences. At the same time, they can practice a boxing method to protect oneself in case of emergency.

At that time, more than 40 people were attracted to join. They worshiped the Immortal Master Yellow Elder and were diligent in practicing the dharma and martial arts. Later, the number of disciples increased. After the Immortal Master made his holy presence known, some disciples suggested that a temple be built. After the Immortal Master Yellow Elder made his holy presence known, some disciples suggested that a temple be built. And after they went before him and asked for instructions, he ordered that the first temple be built in Malacca. Because Malacca is a holy place of Buddhist temples, the sect spread throughout Malaysia and into Singapore.

黄老仙师缘起一九三七年间在马来西亚半岛森美兰州马口三十八啤农村，当时廖俊在道坛内，因在其好奇心驱使下，趁道堂内无人，就学乩童扶乩，忽然间且有神灵附身，双手交替频频作抚须状，同时肃然端坐，喃喃低语，就是听不明白说些什么，也不知是什么神明降神，之后廖俊就醒来了，但什么也不知道。过后几乎每天都请乩降童，就是不能开口说话，后来原本道堂主人戴招先生，在廖俊扶乩降童时，替他作新乩童开光封印法，廖俊才执笔写明某日可开言，直到该日廖俊降乩时，开口讲道，道理严明，心义深长，并说是黄老仙师下凡授徒济世，但不表明来历。

经过一段时日的请乩降童，又在众人不断的追问下，知悉黄老仙师就是历代相传的黄石公，奉玉皇大帝旨谕到来开黄老仙师法门宣扬教理，普渡善民，有志入黄老仙师法门行道者，必先斋戒三十天，再行过法堂仪式，方为正式弟子，所授之法乃随心变化法，可随心运用，惟必用於正道方有灵验，不可存有邪念，凡是黄老仙师弟子，可在家自设神位奉拜，正中设立牌位上书慈，忠，信，义，礼，伦，节，孝，廉，德堂，左边立牌上书顺天行道忠，右边上书从地復礼仪。

黄老仙师弟子，除了必修慈忠信义礼伦节孝廉德十训道理之外，也可画符驱邪镇宅，同时也修炼法拳，以备紧急时防身，当时就吸引了四十余人加入，亦诚崇信黄老仙师，勤於练法练武，后来弟子越增越多，加上黄老仙师威灵显圣，更有弟子提议黄老仙师庙，经过向黄老仙师请示，奉旨第一间庙应先建在马六甲，因为马六甲是佛庙圣地，之后从马六甲开始推广到星马各州。

This passage is interesting because it mixes Buddhist, Confucian, and Daoist terminology. Examples include “dharma gate” and “right way”; the list of the ten precepts, which are similar to the Four Cardinal Principles and Eight Virtues; and the evil-warding talismans.

It still amazes me, though, that the Great Sage is given such a prominent position in the center when he’s not even the main focus of the sect.

Update: 09-04-23

Irwen Wong of the Journey to the West Library blog reminded me that Huang Lao xianshi, under his guise as Huang Shigong (refer back to sec. III above), is mentioned in Journey to the West. In chapter 14, Tripitaka banishes Sun Wukong for killing six thieves who accost them shortly after the simian immortal is released from under Five Elements Mountain. Monkey retreats to the underwater kingdom of the Eastern Dragon King to vent, and after some tea, he notices a painting on the wall:

When they finished the tea, Pilgrim happened to turn around and saw hanging behind him on the wall a painting on the “Presentation of Shoes at Yi Bridge.” “What’s this all about?” asked Pilgrim. The Dragon King replied, “The incident depicted in the painting took place some time after you were born, and you may not recognize what it was-the threefold presentation of shoes at Yi Bridge.” “What do you mean by the threefold presentation of shoes?” asked Pilgrim.”

The immortal in the painting,” said the Dragon King, “was named Huang Shigong, and the young man kneeling in front of him was called Zhang Liang. Shigong was sitting on the Yi Bridge when suddenly one of his shoes fell off and dropped under the bridge. He asked Zhang Liang to fetch it, and the young man quickly did so, putting it back on for him as he knelt there. This happened three times. Since Zhang Liang did not display the slightest sign of pride or impatience, he won the affection of Shigong, who imparted to him that night a celestial manual and told him to support the house of Han. Afterwards, Zhang Liang ‘made his plans sitting in a military tent to achieve victories a thousand miles away. When the Han dynasty was established, he left his post and went into the mountains, where he followed the Daoist, Master Red Pine, and became enlightened in the way of immortality. Great Sage, if you do not accompany the Tang Monk, if you are unwilling to exercise diligence or to accept instruction, you will remain a bogus immortal after all. Don’t think that you’ll ever acquire the Fruits of Truth.”

Wukong listened to these words and fell silent for some time. The Dragon King said, “Great Sage, you must make the decision yourself It’s unwise to allow momentary comfort to jeopardize your future.” “Not another word!” said Wukong. “Old Monkey will go back to accompany him, that’s all!” Delighted, the Dragon King said, “If that’s your wish, I dare not detain you. Instead, I ask the Great Sage to show his mercy at once and not permit his master to wait any longer.” When Pilgrim heard this exhortation to leave, he bounded right out of the oceanic region; mounting the clouds, he left the Dragon King (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 318).

茶畢，行者回頭一看，見後壁上掛著一幅「圯橋進履」的畫兒。行者道：「這是甚麼景致？」龍王道：「大聖在先，此事在後，故你不認得。這叫做『圯橋三進履』。」行者道：「怎的是『三進履』？」龍王道：「此仙乃是黃石公，此子乃是漢世張良，石公坐在圯橋上，忽然失履於橋下，遂喚張良取來。此子即忙取來，跪獻於前。如此三度，張良略無一毫倨傲怠慢之心，石公遂愛他勤謹，夜授天書，著他扶漢。後果然運籌帷幄之中，決勝千里之外。太平後，棄職歸山，從赤松子遊，悟成仙道。大聖，你若不保唐僧，不盡勤勞，不受教誨，到底是個妖仙，休想得成正果。」悟空聞言，沉吟半晌不語。龍王道：「大聖自當裁處，不可圖自在，誤了前程。」悟空道：「莫多話，老孫還去保他便了。」龍王忻喜道：「既如此，不敢久留，請大聖早發慈悲，莫要疏久了你師父。」

行者見他催促請行，急縱身，出離海藏，駕著雲，別了龍王。

Update: 11-07-24

I was looking for something unrelated on google images and found this picture from the Huang Lao Xianshi Temple (Huang Lao xianshi miao, 黃老仙師廟) of Terendak Military Camp (Delinda junying, 德林達軍營) in Malacca City, Malaysia (fig. 5).

Fig. 5 – The Terendak Military Camp Huan Lao xianshi sect trinity (larger version). Image found here.

Note:

1) The BOXS catalog explains that there’s actually some confusion between two similarity named deities in different versions of the trinity. One is the aforementioned Huang Lao xianshi (黃老仙師) and the other is Wang Lao xianshi (王老仙師). This is because Huang (黃) and Wang (王) “are almost homophones” (RefNo. W6675 & W3015).

Sources:

Chin, A. (2007). Confucius: A Life of Thought and Politics. United Kingdom: Yale University Press.

Sawyer, R. D., & Sawyer, M. (2007). The Seven Military Classics of Ancient China. New York, NY: Basic Books.

Werner, E. T. C. (1922). Myths & Legends of China. New York: George G. Harrap & Co. Ltd.