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Why was Sun Wukong Able to Live 342 Years Prior to his Immortality?

Jim R. McClanahan 1 Comment

Last updated: 10-26-2024

Someone on reddit recently asked why Sun Wukong was able to live just shy of 400 years before even attaining immortality. I thought this was a good question, so I decided to split off related material from an old piece that I never finished and make a quick article. The short answer is tied to Daoist concepts of fate, and the long answer ultimately explains why Monkey strikes his name from the ledger of life and death in hell.

I. Info from the novel

Here, I would like to quote two early sections from Journey to the West (Xiyouji, 西遊記, 1592) that refer to Sun Wukong’s age. The first appears in chapter one after he becomes monarch of the primates:

The Handsome Monkey King thus led a flock of gibbons, macaques, and horse-monkeys, some of whom were appointed by him as his ministers, aides, and envoys. They toured the Flower-Fruit Mountain in the morning, and they lived in the Water-Curtain Cave by night. Living in concord and sympathy, they did not mingle with bird or beast but enjoyed their independence in perfect happiness. For such were their activities:

In the spring they gathered flowers for food and drink.
In the summer they went in quest of fruits for sustenance.
In the autumn they amassed taros and chestnuts to ward off time.
In the winter they searched for yellow-sperms to live out the year.

The Handsome Monkey King had enjoyed this insouciant existence for three to five hundred years (emphasis added) when one day, while feasting with the rest of the monkeys, he suddenly grew sad and shed a few tears (based on Wu & Yu, 2012, p. 106).

美猴王領一群猿猴、獼猴、馬猴等，分派了君臣佐使。朝遊花果山，暮宿水簾洞，合契同情，不入飛鳥之叢，不從走獸之類，獨自為王，不勝歡樂。是以：

春採百花為飲食，夏尋諸果作生涯。
秋收芋栗延時節，冬覓黃精度歲華。

美猴王享樂天真，何期有三五百載。一日，與群猴喜宴之間，忽然憂惱，墮下淚來。

And the second appears in chapter three after Monkey is dragged to hell. He bullies underworld officials into giving him his ledger of life and death, in which he learns his exact age and fate:

You see, though this monkey resembled a human being [i.e. his body], he was not listed under the names of men; though he resembled the short-haired creatures [i.e. his fur], he did not dwell in their kingdoms; though he resembled other animals, he was not subject to the unicorn; and though he resembled flying creatures [i.e. his beak-like, protruding face], he was not governed by the phoenix. He had, therefore, a separate ledger, which Wukong examined himself. Under the heading “Soul1350” he found the name Sun Wukong recorded, with the description: “Heaven-born Stone Monkey. Age: three hundred and forty-two years. A good end” (emphasis added) (Wu & Yu, 2012, p. 140).

又看到猴屬之類，原來這猴似人相，不入人名；似臝蟲，不居國界；似走獸，不伏麒麟管；似飛禽，不受鳳凰轄。另有個簿子，悟空親自檢閱，直到那「魂」字一千三百五十號上，方注著孫悟空名字，乃「天產石猴，該壽三百四十二歲，善終」。

So why then was he able to live so long?

I. Religious background

The answer lies in the concept of “pre-allotted lifespans” (ming, 命; a.k.a. “fate”) (fig. 1), which can be traced to weft texts [1] and Grand Purity (Taiqing, 太清) scriptures of the Han dynasty (3rd-c. BCE to 3rd-c. CE). According to 1st to 3rd-century CE commentators, a person’s lifespan and good or bad fortune in life were determined according to whatever combination of “heavenly pneumas” (tianqi, 天氣) and “astral essences” (xingjing, 星精) that they were born under, meaning one’s fate was not handpicked by heaven (Campany, 2005, pp. 131-134). This allotted lifespan was not set in stone, however, for it was subject to subtractions and additions based on one’s bad or good deeds. The deity in charge of this tally system was called the “Director of Allotted Life Spans” (Siming, 司命), and, unlike the underworld officials who provided Monkey with his ledger, he was said to reside in heaven where he regularly received reports on individual human sins by the tutelary Stove god (Zaoshen, 竈神) on the first, fifteenth, and last day of every month. Additionally, he received reports from the three corpses/worms (sanshi, 三尸) inhabiting a person’s body. [2] The more a person sinned, the more points (time) was subtracted, anywhere from almost a year for major offences to just three days for minor offences. Doing good deeds or cheating the system were the only ways to live out the entirety of the allotted lifespan (Campany & Ge, 2002, pp. 47-52).

Evolution of the character ming (命) (larger version). Image found here.

Ways of “living off the books” included magically disguising clothing or a sword as a body (fig. 2), ritually bribing the gods of life and death with a golden statue to be used as a substitute body, or inserting a fake death certificate into the coffin of a recently deceased grandfather. These methods essentially tricked heaven into thinking that the person had died (Campany, 2005, pp. 134-138; Campany & Ge, 2002, pp. 60). The use of longevity-bestowing elixirs was considered the only true way of breaking free of the allotted lifespan and achieving immortality. Interestingly, the Han-era Scripture on the Elixirs of the Nine Tripods (Jiuding danjing, 九鼎丹經) describes how taking a fired concoction of cinnabar, vinegar, and lacquer for a thousand days straight would result in the “Director of Allotted Life Spans expung[ing] your name from the registers of death, so that you will end only when Heaven and Earth do” (Campany & Ge, 2002, pp. 52).

Fig. 2 – A type of Chinese jian (劍) sword that might be magically disguised to look like a decoy body (larger version). Image found here.

Therefore, we can see that Wukong’s allotted lifespan was 342 years and his birth fell under fortunate cosmic circumstances, for he was born onto an island paradise, served as the king of monkeys, and was destined to have a “good end” (shan zhong, 善終). Monkey had already achieved immortality via Daoist practices prior to being dragged to hell, so he had no need for cheating the system in order to live out the rest of his allotted lifespan. Nor did he need to take an elixir. He was simply so powerful that he could strike his name from the ledgers by force, thereby freeing himself from heaven’s control.

As for the significance of 342, Irwen Wong over at the Journey to the West Library blog has pointed out to me that the numbers add up to nine (3+4+2 = 9), which is an important digit in religious numerology. However, he also suggests that 342 could just be a random number chosen by the author-compiler.

Update: 10-15-24

I was reminded that the max level in the hit video game Black Myth: Wukong (2024) is 342, an obvious reference to Monkey’s lifespan.

Update: 10-26-24

Someone on reddit disagreed with me regarding allotted lifespans. Instead, they suggested that Sun Wukong somehow naturally performs the Daoist breathing exercises that would eventually lead to his immortality, as in he lengthened his life via cultivation practices just like Monkey deduces the 270-year-old Buddhist abbot, “Elder of the Golden Pool” (Jinchi changlao, 金池長老), did in chapter 17 (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 356). But this explanation ignores two elements from the novel. One, as mentioned above, the Great Sage’s allotted lifespan of 342 years is clearly recorded in the ledgers of life and death. This is beyond dispute. And two, the book presents cultivated longevity as a crime against heaven. For example, when Sun achieves immortality, the Patriarch Subodhi gives him a warning:

“What you have learned,” said the Patriarch, “is no ordinary magic: you have stolen the creative powers of Heaven and Earth and invaded the dark mysteries of the sun and moon. Your success in perfecting the elixir is something that the gods and the demons cannot countenance. Though your appearance will be preserved and your age lengthened, [heaven will send the three calamities to destroy you]” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 121).

祖師道：「此乃非常之道：奪天地之造化，侵日月之玄機；丹成之後，鬼神難容。雖駐顏益壽，但到了五百年後，天降雷災打你，須要見性明心，預先躲避。躲得過，壽與天齊；躲不過，就此絕命。再五百年後，天降火災燒你。這火不是天火，亦不是凡火，喚做『陰火』。自本身湧泉穴下燒起，直透泥垣宮，五臟成灰，四肢皆朽，把千年苦行，俱為虛幻。再五百年，又降風災吹你。這風不是東南西北風，不是和薰金朔風，亦不是花柳松竹風，喚做『贔風』。自顖門中吹入六腑，過丹田，穿九竅，骨肉消疏，其身自解。所以都要躲過。」

The aforementioned calamities are elemental attacks of divine lightening, fire, and wind that are respectively sent every 500 years to kill cultivators for defying their fated age and attaining immortality (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, pp. 121-122).

This negative view of immortality also extends to the cultivation practices that produce it. Campany (1985) explains that demons are evil in the novel because they try to bypass the natural cosmic hierarchy by using spiritual practices to encapsulate the universe within themselves, while the pilgrims follow the “correct” path by submitting to Buddhism and building Buddhist merit in place of the selfish quest for immortality (pp. 112-113). This is perfectly summed up by the Great Sage’s story trajectory. He was considered a monster until he reformed and became Tripitaka’s disciple.

Having said that, I would like to return to the Golden Pool Elder. It’s important to remember that he learned his life-prolonging techniques from a nearby spirit, and that he was, as Monkey puts it, also a member of the fiend’s “monster’s gang” (yaojing jiedang, 妖精結黨) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 356). And when you take into account his willingness to set his own monastery on fire just to murder Tripitaka and attain the monk’s heaven-sent robe (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 340), the abbot is just as much of a devil as those he congregated with. Therefore, his cultivation falls into the same category as demons, making him an ill-suited example to use.

Notes:

1) The term “Weft texts” draws on a weaving analogy to refer to side texts that compliment or complete existing material.

2) The ancient Chinese believed that the body was inhabited by upwards of ten souls, namely three hun (魂) and seven po (魄) souls. In addition, the body was inhabited by three demonic parasites, the three corpses/worms (sanshi, 三尸), who wanted nothing more than to be rid of their mortal confinement so they’d be free to wander and eat sacrificial offerings left for ghosts. Therefore, they would report the sins of their human vessel to heaven in order to hasten their demise (Campany & Ge, 2002, p. 49, for example).

Monkey’s own three corpses/worms are referenced in chapter 32 when a demon magically calls forth a mountain that crushes our hero:

Exerting his spirit even more, he [the monster] recited another spell and sent up the Tai Mountain to press down on Pilgrim’s head. With this magic of the Tai Mountain Pressing the Head, the Great Sage was overpowered as his strength ebbed and his tendons turned numb; the weight was so great that the spirits of the Three Worms inside his body exploded and blood spouted from his seven apertures [i.e. his eyes, ears, nostrils, and mouth] (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, pp. 108-109).

又整性情，把真言念動，將一座泰山遣在空中，劈頭壓住行者。那大聖力軟觔麻，遭逢他這泰山下頂之法，只壓得三尸神咋，七竅噴紅。

Sources:

Campany, R. F. (1985). Demons, Gods, and Pilgrims: The Demonology of the Hsi-yu Chi. Chinese Literature: Essays, Articles, Reviews (CLEAR), 7(1/2), 95-115. doi:10.2307/495195

Campany, R. F., & Ge, H. (2002). To Live as Long as Heaven and Earth: A Translation and Study of Ge Hong’s Traditions of Divine Transcendents. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Campany, R. F. (2005). Living off the Books: Fifty Ways to Dodge Ming in Early Medieval China. In C. Lupke (Ed.), The Magnitude of Ming: Command, Allotment, and Fate in Chinese Culture (pp. 129-150), University of Hawaii Press.

Wu, C., & Yu, A. C. (2012). The Journey to the West (Vols. 1-4) (Rev. ed.). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press.

A Possible Origin for the Term “Handsome Monkey King”

Jim R. McClanahan 2 Comments

I normally don’t post tone marks for Chinese words, but I will include them here since they are important to the subject of this article.

Měihóu wáng (美猴王), or the “Handsome Monkey King,” is one of Sūn Wùkōng‘s many names and titles. I recently saw an online post where someone proposed their own folk analysis for the character měi (美, “beautiful/handsome”), suggesting that the two prongs on top reference Monkey’s iconic feathered cap. But others quickly pointed out that this was historically not the case. This reminded me of my theory on the origins of the term Měihóu wáng.

(Left) The character měi (美, “beautiful/handsome”) (larger version). Take note of the two prongs on top. Image found here. (Right) Èrláng vs Sūn Wùkōng (larger version). Take note of Monkey’s feathered cap. Image of a production still from the 1986 TV Series.

I have suggested in an update to a past article that the title is a play on Míhóu wáng (獼猴王, “Macaque/Monkey King”), míhóu being a common term for monkeys for centuries. [1] This is because the 13th-century version of Journey to the West (Xīyóu jì, 西遊記, 1592) calls Sūn Wùkōng‘s antecedent Míhóu wáng. [2] Even a 3rd-century Chinese version of an Indian jataka tale where the Buddha is a monkey king calls him Míhóu wáng. But most importantly, the Middle Chinese pronunciation of měi (美) sounds more like “mǐ” (mijX), as do the pronunciations of many ethnic groups and even neighboring countries. This might suggest that the pre-modern usage was adopted by these people and places in the past. Therefore, Míhóu wáng and Měihóu wáng may have sounded similar at some point in history:

Modern Chinese → Middle Chinese

獼猴王 (Míhóu wáng) → Míhóu wáng (mjie-huw hjwang) [3]

美猴王 (Měihóu wáng) → Mǐhóu wáng (mijX huw hjwang) [4] 

Ethnic and foreign pronunciations of měi (美)

If true, this would mean that the common link between Sūn Wùkōng‘s title and his ego is a later interpretation.

I must point out, however, that I am NOT a language expert. This is just something that dawned on me one day. I would like feedback from more knowledgeable readers. Please write me via the “contact” button on the menu, or leave a comment below.

The Handsome Monkey King is waited on by his children (larger version). Image from the Japanese children’s book Son Goku (孫悟空,1939).

Notes:

1) Míhóu is one of various transcriptions for a word of non-Chinese origin used in ancient China to mean “monkey”:

The fact that mu occurs in four variants: 母 and 沐 in Chou literature, and mi 米 or 獼 during the Han dynasty and later, proves that this binom is a phonetic rendering of a non-Chinese term (Van Gulik, 1967, p. 35).

2) The full title is the “Bronze-Headed, Iron-Browed King of the Eighty-Four Thousand Monkeys of the Purple Cloud Grotto on the Mountain of Flowers and Fruit” (Huāguǒ shān Zǐyún dòng bāwàn sìqiān tóngtóu tiě’é Míhóu wáng, 花果山紫雲洞八萬四千銅頭鐵額獼猴王) (Wivell, 1994, p. 1182).

3) See Kroll et al. (2015, pp. 162, 302, and 469).

4) See Kroll et al. (2015, pp. 162, 299, and 469).

Source:

Kroll, P. W., Baxter, W., Boltz, W. G., Knechtges, D. R., Lien, Y. E., Richter, A., Richter, M. L., Warner, D. X. (2015). A Student’s Dictionary of Classical and Medieval Chinese. Belgium: Brill.

Van Gulik, R. H. (1967). The Gibbon in China: An Essay in Chinese Animal Lore. Leiden: E.J. Brill.

Wivell, C.S. (1994). The Story of How the Monk Tripitaka of the Great Country of T’ang Brought Back the Sūtras. In V. Mair (Ed.), The Columbia Anthology of Traditional Chinese Literature (pp. 1181-1207). New York: Columbia University Press.

Sun Wukong Dough Figurines from Quanzhou, Fujian, China

Jim R. McClanahan Leave a comment

Last updated: 10-12-2024

My blog currently hosts several articles related to Fujian Province, China, including Sun Wukong’s cult, some of his mainland temples, a 13th-century pagoda relief carving, and a rare Yuan-Ming Journey to the West (Xiyouji, 西遊記) puppet play entitled Tripitaka Seeks the Scriptures (Sanzang Qujing, 三藏取經). Here, I would like to add to the list by shining a spotlight on the traditional “decorated dough figurines” (zhuanggao ren, 粧糕人) of Maan Uiling (Wan Weilong, 萬偉龍; Insta: @maanuiling) from Quanzhou City.

This article will serve as a very basic introduction to dough figurines. The artform of food-based dolls has many names across Asia, including niemian ren or liat bin/bian jin/lin (捏面/麵人) and niesu or liat sok/so (捏塑) in Chinese and Hokkien-speaking countries, amezaiku (飴細工) in Japan, and to he in Vietnam.

I will update this piece when new information becomes available.

1. Uiling’s Work

I first learned about Uiling’s art from a Facebook post (video 1). It features Sun Wukong in whimsical, brightly-colored scenes of combat and worship.

Video 1 – A video of Great Sage dough figurines.

1.1. Brief Interview

Uiling was kind enough to answer some questions:

1. I would really like to learn more about the history and uses of decorated dough figurines. Are they related to religion?

The figurines are only available during the Yulanpen [i.e. Hungry Ghost] Festival in the seventh month of the lunar calendar. They are used to ward off evil spirits. In my seaside hometown of Quanzhou, Fujian, adults buy them for children to play with in order to drive away evil spirits.

[…]

The most popular figure purchased by everyone during the seventh lunar month is Sun Wukong, and there’s also Nezha, Three-Eyed Yang Jian [i.e. Erlang, 二郎], the Pagoda-Bearing Heavenly King [i.e. Li Jing, 李靖], Mother Guanyin, Lord Guan, Tripitaka riding the white horse, Mu Guiying, He Xiangu, and Iron Crutch Li bearing a hu-gourd.

你好，粧糕人是农历七月盂兰盆节才有的东西。用来镇邪。我的家乡在海边福建泉州，大人买来给小孩子拿在手上玩，驱逐鬼恶。

[…]

七月的时候大家买的比较多的是孙悟空，还有哪吒、三目杨戬、托塔天王、观音妈、关公、三藏骑白马、穆桂英、何仙姑、铁拐李有一粒葫芦。

(The demonifugic properties of the figurines no doubt explain why Sun Wukong is a popular subject of dough figurine makers. He is after all the demon queller par excellence.)

2. Can you tell me how you started making decorated dough figurines? Is this a family tradition? And can you walk me through the process? What materials do you use, and how long does it take to make the figurines?

The materials are wheat flour, glutinous rice flour, salt, honey, etc. It takes five hours to make one. I have enjoyed this since I was a child and have learned from people everywhere. I want to produce items that suit how I feel in my soul. I have written a book titled Quanzhou Clay Toys.

材料是面粉糯米粉盐蜂蜜等。制作目前是五个小时。我从小就喜欢这个，到处跟人学。我想做出适合我灵魂的感觉。我有写一本书《泉州土怂玩具》。

Those wishing to purchase his creations should download the REDnote (小红书) app. Then, search “泉郡粧糕宫.” If this doesn’t work, you can reach out to the artist on Facebook. Again, search “泉郡粧糕宫.”

1.2. Style Influences

Uiling’s version of Sun Wukong features long hair, something that may seem unique to the laymen (fig. 1).

Fig. 1 – Uiling’s version of the Monkey King (larger version). Screenshot from this Instagram video.

But this can be tied to his depiction in Fujian glove puppetry (fig. 1) and folk religion (fig. 2).

Fig. 1 (left) – A (porcelain or wood) Quanzhou glove puppet Monkey King head (larger version). Photo found here. Fig. 2 (right) – A Fujian Great Sage statue in my personal collection (larger version).

And these in turn are modeled on long-haired military monks (wuseng, 武僧) from Chinese opera (fig. 3).

Fig. 2 – A detail of the literary hero and military monk Wu Song from a Chinese opera about his adventures (larger version). Full version available on Wikimedia Commons.

2. Folk History

Several online articles link dough figurines to the origins of mantou pastries. Thankfully, I was able to find a dynastic source mentioning the legend. [1] The Song-era Records on the Origins of Things and Affairs (Shiwu jiyuan, 事物紀原, c. 11th-century) contains an entry reading:

Steamed Buns [Mantou, 饅頭]

The novel says: In the past, when Martial Marquis Zhuge [Zhuge wuhou, 諸葛武侯; i.e. Zhuge Liang, 諸葛亮] was leading an expedition to capture Meng [孟; i.e. Meng Hou, 孟获], people said that the land of the Man-barbarians [蠻] was permeated with sorcery. So, he had to pray to the gods in order to procure spirit-soldiers to help him. But the local custom involved killing sacrificial victims before the gods would send troops. However, the Martial Marquis refused, choosing instead to wrap mutton and pork in rice dough and shape them like human heads [rentou, 人頭]. After this “sacrifice,” the gods sent the soldiers.

From then on, later generations called these “steamed buns” [mantou, 饅頭; i.e. a homonym of “Man-barbarian heads”]. In Lu Di’s (Miscellaneous) Methods of Sacrifice [(Za) Ji fa, (雜)祭法] of the Jin Dynasty, steamed buns were used during the spring sacrifice as items offered to the gods. And Xu Shi’s “Rhapsody on Pasta” [Bing fu, 餅賦] also mentions this, so it’s suspected that steamed buns originated from the Martial Marquis.

饅頭

小說雲：昔諸葛武侯之徵孟獲也，人曰：蠻地多邪術，須禱於神，假陰兵一以助之。然蠻俗必殺人，以其首祭之，神則向之，為出兵也。武侯不從，因雜用羊豕之肉以包之，以面像人頭以祠，神亦向焉，而為出兵。後人由此為饅頭。至晉盧諦《祭法》春祠用饅頭，始列於祭祀之品，而束晢《餅賦》亦有其說，則饅頭疑自武侯始也。

It’s easy to see how this story was associated with our subject. Both the steamed buns and and figurines are humanoid representations that are shaped from rice dough. And both serve a religious function.

I hope to write more about this fascinating artform in the future.

Update: 10-12-24

Dr. Robin Ruizendaal, a noted scholar of traditional Chinese puppetry, recently posted a colorized photo of a dough figurine maker from the mid-20th century (fig. 3). His original description reads:

1940年代四川成都龍泉驛區賣捏麵人演偶戲
Dough puppet maker and vendor brings his merchandise to life on a small stage in Chengdu, Sichuan province (1940s).

The maker appears to be using his figurines as puppets to entertain/entice the young lads to buy some of his wares.

Fig. 3 – The dough maker and crowd (larger version).

Notes:

1) I learned about said source from Ma (2019, p. 981). However, I am not following their translation of the passage because it is different from the version I have.

Source:

Ma, B. (2019). History Of Medicine In Chinese Culture (Vols. 1-2). Singapore: World Scientific Publishing.

Story Idea: Firearms and the Journey to the West Universe

Jim R. McClanahan 4 Comments

From time to time I like to post a fun blog not directly related to (though sometimes informed by) my research. Regular articles will resume after this entry.

Last updated: 12-03-2024

I am currently reading Gunpowder Technology in the Fifteenth Century: A Study, Edition and Translation of the Firework Book (2024), and this got me thinking: what would the Journey to the West (Xiyouji, 西遊記, 1592) cosmos be like if there were guns? In this photo essay, I will briefly explore guns in Chinese folk religion, types of historical (mainly handheld) firearms used in ancient China, and, finally, ways that such weapons could be inserted into the narrative.

I. Folk Religion

I first set out to see if firearms play any part in Chinese folk religion. I found a few examples from Taiwan. The first is “Lord Red Flag” (Hongqi gong, 紅旗公; a.k.a. “Marshal of Sacred Righteousness,” Shengyi yuanshuai, 聖義元帥), a relatively recent martial god. He and his marshals are depicted holding rifles.

(Click on the pictures to enlarge them.)

Here’s a version without the cloak.

Even his tangki (spirit-medium) gets a chance to fire off some rounds.

Three more involve Prince Nezha. The first of two (from the same temple) is a traditional statue adorned with an M4 assault rifle and other modern weaponry.

Here’s a closeup of the rifle. Also, take note of the holstered revolver (i.e. the black pouch) on his waist.

The profile view shows clips on his belt (again, in black pouches), as well as a grenade on top of an ammo case at his feet.

The second is a three-headed and eight-armed Nezha with an anti-tank rocket launcher, a rocket round, and a grenade at his feet.

A third statue (my personal favorite) portrays the prince with an MP 40 submachine gun and modern military gear. The carving on the water is amazing. I first learned of it here.

I learned here and here that cannons are sometimes worshiped in East and Southeast Asia as fertility gods. (See the 09-29-24 update below for more info about cannons.)

I also learned that ritual guns sometimes appear in Chinese folk temples of Vietnam.

If present, the guns number among ritual weapons that are commonly found in martial god temples of Chinese folk religion. (But I’ve never personally seen a gun among said armaments in Taiwanese temples.) This Vietnamese article briefly mentions that the weapons are based on the eighteen arms of Chinese martial arts. And it’s interesting to note that a “hand canon” (chong, 銃) does appear among the eighteen arms listed in the Water Margin (Shuihu zhuan, 水滸傳, c. 1400):

Shi Jin daily sought Drill Instructor Wang’s tutelage in the eighteen (weapons of) martial arts. He taught him from the very beginning. Which eighteen martial arts?

Lance, hammer, bow, crossbow, hand cannon, whip, metal tablet, long sword, chain, truncheon, fu-axe, yue-axe, ge-halberd, ji-halberd, shield, staff and spear, and toothless rake. [1]

史進每日求王教頭點撥十八般武藝，一一從頭指教。 那十八般武藝？

矛錘弓弩銃，鞭簡(鐧)劍鏈撾，斧鉞並戈戟，牌棒與槍杈。

Perhaps this list influenced the ritual weapons in Vietnam.

II. Historical Firearms in Ancient China

Here is an example of a Yuan-era hand canon, minus the shaft.

Here is a “Three-Eyed Hand Canon” (Sanyan chong, 三眼銃), a three-barreled stick gun used during the Ming Dynasty.

You can see that they were attached to bladed polearms, which could be used offensively or defensively between reloading.

There were even five-barreled and shielded firearms called “Rapid-Thunder Hand Cannons” (Xunlei chong, 迅雷銃). So cool!

Here’s a Chinese video demonstrating the one and three-barreled versions:

III. Story Idea

This brings me back to Journey to the West. How could firearms be inserted into a religious allegory? Well, for starters, a 950 CE wall mural in Dunhuang shows one of Mara‘s demons attacking the awakening Buddha with a “fire lance” (huoqiang, 火槍; upper right), a precursor of hand cannons. This is a clear example of a centuries-old association between firearms and spiritual warfare.

Here’s the full mural.

Now imagine that these weapons are wielded by celestial gunner-soldiers under the command of the “Star of Fiery Virtue” (Huode xingjun, 火德星君), the god of fire. In JTTW chapter 51, his literary troops utilize fire scimitars, fire bows, fire arrows, fire crows, fire horses, red (fire) rats, fire dragons, fire carts, fire gourds, fire banners, and fire rods in battle (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 9). These are just a short step from firearms.

Given that the novel projects Ming-era concepts backwards to the Tang Dynasty, having gods wield such weapons hundreds of years before they were even invented wouldn’t be out of place in the JTTW universe. A writer could just say that the weapons were created in the realm above and eventually trickled down to mankind. Admittedly, I like the real history better because it shows the ingenuity of our predecessors, but the story requires a little tinkering.

Writers wanting to expand on the idea of firearms in heaven could take Ming gunners, their uniforms, and their strategies as models to work from. This page features a lovely figurine of such soldiers, including lots of juicy historical info. And the fact that the historical troops were part of the “Divine Machine Battalion” (Shenji ying, 神機營), which specialized in firearms, really solidifies their connection to the heavenly realm.

Who would make such weapons? There’s a fun answer for that: Laozi! The novel twice describes him forging mystical weapons belonging to our main characters. For example, Zhu Bajie mentions in chapter 19 that the high god made his rake: “This is divine ice steel greatly refined, / Polished so highly that it glows and shines. / Laozi wielded the large hammer and tong …” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 382). And Monkey claims in chapter 75 that the Daoist Patriarch created his staff: “The rod of steel nine cyclic times refined / Was forged in the stove by Laozi himself” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 375). So, on top of making alchemical medicines, Laozi could be heaven’s celestial gunsmith.

How could demons get ahold of celestial guns? Well, referring back to chapter 51, a buffalo-spirit uses the “diamond cutter” (jingang zhuo, 金鋼琢), an uber powerful, bracelet-like treasure-weapon also created by Laozi, to twice suck away all of the aforementioned fire weapons (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, pp. 9 and 23). Devil craftsmen would then have time to analyze the heavenly technology, which would allow them to eventually make their own (inferior?) copies.

Recall that the Great Peng demon is said in chapter 74 to have taken over a human kingdom by eating all of the inhabitants some 500 years ago, and the former population was replaced by spirits (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 360). Firearms would definitely make a human-to-monster kingdom transition for less powerful demon kings a lot easier.

Another possibility is that a fiend could simply sneak into heaven to steal some. This may seem like an impossible task, but JTTW chapter 63 mentions something similar happening. The dragon-spirit “Princess All Saints” (Wansheng gongzhu, 萬聖宮(公)主) is said to have “[snuck] into heaven and stole[n] from before the Hall of Divine Mists the nine-leaf divine agaric planted by the Lady Queen Mother of the West” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 3, p. 192). So, if someone can secretly infiltrate the realm above and steal divine vegetation, they could certainly steal heavenly armaments.

Perhaps the simplest way that demons could attain celestial firearms is by ambushing heavenly troops and commandeering their equipment.

I could see Red Boy (Honghai’er, 紅孩兒) using his powerful Samadhi flame to forge his own hand cannons, at least with the help of devil craftsmen. His association with fire only makes it natural that his own troops would carry firearms.

The only thing I can’t think of is how heavenly hand cannons would differ from their real world counterparts. Would they just use gunpowder and metal shot, or would it be more magical in nature, like shooting meteors? I’m open to suggestions from readers.

Update: 09-29-2024

The film Enoken no Songoku: Zenpen (エノケンの孫悟空 前編; a.k.a. “Enoken’s Songoku,” 1940) features the Monkey King mowing down demons with his staff-turned-machine gun.

There are at least two toys depicting the Great Sage with a gun. The first I learned about via a Facebook group post. I love how his sniper rifle is modeled on his magic staff. You can see the original packaging here.

And here is a Black Myth: Wukong-inspired figure with a powerful-looking rifle/shot gun combo. I saw it here.

Regarding cannons, I learned that a giant Western cannon was worshiped by court officials during the Ming. The History of the Ming (Mingshi, 明史, 1739) explains:

At this time, a ship arriving from the Great Western Ocean [i.e. the West] brought an enormous cannon, which got the name of the “Red Barbarian” [Hongyi, 紅夷]. It measured over two-zhang [20.86 ft/6.358 m] long, and weighed as much as 3,000 catties [3,902.18 lbs/1,770 kg]. It could demolish any stone city-walls, and its earthquake-like roar could be heard for several dozen li around. During the Tianqi [天啟] reign, the name of “Great General” [Da jiangjun, 大將軍] was given to it, and officials were sent to offer libations [si, 祀] to it (based on Needham, 1986, p. 392).

其後，大西洋船至，復得巨砲，曰紅夷。長二丈馀，重者至三千斤，能洞裂石城，震數十里。天啟中，錫以大將軍號，遣官祀之。

Needham (1986) suggests the cannon’s worship is connected to folk beliefs: “In Taoist folk-religion any device or machine of almost miraculous potency was something which should receive veneration” (p. 392 n. b).

Update: 10-05-24

I forgot to mention the “Gatling Gun Bodhisattva” (Jia-te-lin pusa, 加特林菩薩) from Chinese social media and Japanese manga. The following clip expounds the Heart Sutra of the Honored Gatling Gun Bodhisattva (Namo Jia-te-lin pusa Xinjing, 南無加特林菩薩心經).

Update: 11-23-24

Reader Danna Zhang left a wonderful comment about how Investiture of the Gods (Fengshen yanyi, 封神演義, c. 1620 CE), a sort of prequel to Journey to the West, also includes gunpowder weaponry:

Late comment, but FSYY also puts Ming dynasty gunpowder weapons into the 11th BCE Shang dynasty setting. Apart from the numerous mentions of “cannons go boom”, In Chapter 56, they broke Deng Jiugong’s ambush-disguised-as-wedding by hiding a cannon in the gift casket and using it to make a surprise attack, and in Chapter 88, Jiang Ziya suggests to King Wu that they need the “Sky-blasting Cannon” (轰天大炮) to breach the walls of Mianchi City.

At this point, I think the bronze age gunpowder weapon isn’t a bug, it'[s] a feature.

Update: 12-03-24

The Japanese Scroll of Battle Between Generations (異代同戱図巻, 17th-century) includes a depiction of Guanyin aiming a flintlock rifle, with the Dragon Girl waiting in attendance behind her.

Note:

1) The narration is based on my translation, while the weapons list is based on that from Lorge (2012). See page 147.

Source:

Lorge, P. A. (2012). Chinese Martial Arts: From Antiquity to the Twenty-First Century. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.

Needham, J. (1986). Science and Civilization in China. Volume 5: Chemistry and Chemical Technology; part 7, Military Technology: The Gunpowder Epic. Assisted by Ho Ping-yü et al. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Wu, C., & Yu, A. C. (2012). The Journey to the West (Vols. 1-4) (Rev. ed.). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press.

 

Journey to the West Artist Spotlight #3: NingadudeXx

Jim R. McClanahan Leave a comment

From time to time I like to post a fun blog not directly related to (though sometimes informed by) my research. Regular articles will resume after this entry.

Anyone who has read my blog will no doubt realize that I am an avid fan of researching the history and influences of Journey to the West (Xiyouji, 西遊記, 1592). But as an artist, I am also a fan of JTTW-related artwork. There are so many talented people in the world who post their original designs and comics online, so I’ve decided to feature some of them on my blog. My hope is that such posts will expose this art to a wider audience interested in JTTW, while also documenting modern day perceptions and depictions of the novel and its characters.

Our third artist goes by the username NingadudeXx on Tumblr and Ningadudexx390 on YouTube. They were kind enough to answer some interview questions, as well as allow permission to display a few of their pieces.

The previous artist spotlight entries can be seen here and here.

I. Q & A

1) Can you tell me a little about yourself?

Hello, I go by DSG! I currently have an art blog called NingadudeXx on Tumblr that I use as a personal portfolio for my artwork. I also have a YouTube channel under the same name, where I post my animations and animatics! My username originates from when I was very young playing Minecraft and didn’t know how to spell, so I ended up with a wonky spelling of my current username. I’ve been using this username out of habit over the past decade and found that my misspelling helps people separate my username from the other dozen Ninja Dude’s out there!

2) Are you self-taught or did you go to art school?

I graduated from a high school that had an arts program, which specialized in animation, film, sound-design, and gaming. Funnily enough, my animation teacher wasn’t much of an artist himself, but the assignments he gave us over the years helped me to improve my skills! Aside from that, I would say that I am mostly a self-taught artist who’s been drawing since I could hold a pencil. Currently, I go to college and I’m working towards getting a degree in the arts, more specifically animation. I work at my school as a digital media tutor, where I help students with graphic design projects involving Adobe programs.

3) What are your main sources of artistic inspiration?

Some big inspirations of mine are Bill Watterson, Charles Schultz, and Craig McCracken. My dad introduced me to comic books when I was young, so I began reading Calvin and Hobbes and Peanuts books at a young age. I also grew up watching Cartoon Network shows, more specifically all of Craig McCracken’s cartoons. Growing up with the early style of 2000s/2010s cartoons has significantly influenced my style over the years. My biggest animation inspiration would have to be Flying Bark Studios, who have created beautiful cartoons such as Lego Monkie Kid and Rise of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles!

4) How did you learn about Journey to the West?

I learned about Journey to the West over 3 years ago now from watching Lego Monkie Kid! I’ve been captivated by the show and Journey to the West since. I love to research and watch any new media I can find that’s inspired by the novel!

5) Who is your favorite character?

My favorite character is Sun Wukong, who I find endlessly fascinating to draw and think about. I think he’s an incredible character that goes through many changes throughout his lifetime, as he ultimately becomes a better person despite the odds against him!

6) Do you have a favorite episode from the novel?

That’s a tough question. I really love everything about the novel! But if I had to choose a favorite section in general, I would have to say the beginning chapters of the novel, where we get to see how Wukong earns his various titles and gains all his abilities. Sun Wukong’s beginnings are an important aspect of his character, especially when compared to how he changes and grows during his journey to the west.

7) Does the novel have a special meaning to you?

This novel is a huge source of inspiration and strength for me. When times are tough, I often try to put myself in the mindset of my favorite characters and think about how they’d react/confront the problem at hand. While I didn’t grow up with the story when I was younger, I’m grateful to be reading and learning about this wonderful novel now!

8) Can you tell me about your ongoing JTTW-related projects?

I hope to make JTTW comics in the future depicting my favorite chapters and scenes from the novel! Until then, I’m always drawing Monkey King whenever I get a sliver of free time, which I usually post on my Tumblr or YouTube page.

II. Art and Thought Process

Note: Click each image to enlarge it.

1. For this piece, I wanted to draw Sun Wukong enjoying himself surrounded by his favorite stone fruits! Some of my favorite types of backgrounds to draw are the ones that involve twisty trees and grassy fields.

2. In this work, I wanted to capture the scene where Wukong breaks out of the Trigram Furnace after 49 long days and goes on a rampage in Heaven. I like to use strong shapes to emphasize emotion, so I made Wukong’s hair sharp and spiky to show his anger.

3. In this piece, I took clothing inspiration from the amazing painting The Great Sage Equaling Heaven by the talented Yang Ruifen. I try my best to include a lot of star/sun motifs in my Sun Wukong artwork, whether it be through the shape of his hair or by putting stars in his eyes. Or in this case, by putting a literal sun behind him!

4. A lot of my artwork is based on spur of the moment ideas, or is inspired by small things that happen in my life! In this case, I happened to eat some colorful and sweet gummies, which inspired the ‘gummy’ monkeys in this piece. It’s fun to find inspiration in small things that are otherwise considered mundane. Wukong is a very reactive and intense character, so I like to think that he has a lot on his mind. This piece was my way of showing that!

5. These two pieces I included together as a diptych! I was studying the attire and textures of the Beijing Opera Monkey King, and the 1996 Journey to the West version of Sun Wukong. I love contrasting warm oranges and yellows against a nice sky-blue color. I ended up entering this diptych into an arts competition at my college and won the illustration category!

6. For this animation, I focused more specifically on Monkie Kid’s version of Sun Wukong, mixed with my own idea of his character! I wanted to capture the feeling that Wukong is a very old being who has inspired many generations, having been in novels, cartoons, films, operas, etc. I wonder if the older Wukong gets, the more his identity gets muddled with other people’s perception of him? Maybe he feels like he must put on a mask of sorts around those who don’t know him personally.