Month October 2024

Why was Sun Wukong Able to Live 342 Years Prior to his Immortality?

Jim R. McClanahan 1 Comment

Last updated: 10-26-2024

Someone on reddit recently asked why Sun Wukong was able to live just shy of 400 years before even attaining immortality. I thought this was a good question, so I decided to split off related material from an old piece that I never finished and make a quick article. The short answer is tied to Daoist concepts of fate, and the long answer ultimately explains why Monkey strikes his name from the ledger of life and death in hell.

I. Info from the novel

Here, I would like to quote two early sections from Journey to the West (Xiyouji, 西遊記, 1592) that refer to Sun Wukong’s age. The first appears in chapter one after he becomes monarch of the primates:

The Handsome Monkey King thus led a flock of gibbons, macaques, and horse-monkeys, some of whom were appointed by him as his ministers, aides, and envoys. They toured the Flower-Fruit Mountain in the morning, and they lived in the Water-Curtain Cave by night. Living in concord and sympathy, they did not mingle with bird or beast but enjoyed their independence in perfect happiness. For such were their activities:

In the spring they gathered flowers for food and drink.
In the summer they went in quest of fruits for sustenance.
In the autumn they amassed taros and chestnuts to ward off time.
In the winter they searched for yellow-sperms to live out the year.

The Handsome Monkey King had enjoyed this insouciant existence for three to five hundred years (emphasis added) when one day, while feasting with the rest of the monkeys, he suddenly grew sad and shed a few tears (based on Wu & Yu, 2012, p. 106).

美猴王領一群猿猴、獼猴、馬猴等，分派了君臣佐使。朝遊花果山，暮宿水簾洞，合契同情，不入飛鳥之叢，不從走獸之類，獨自為王，不勝歡樂。是以：

春採百花為飲食，夏尋諸果作生涯。
秋收芋栗延時節，冬覓黃精度歲華。

美猴王享樂天真，何期有三五百載。一日，與群猴喜宴之間，忽然憂惱，墮下淚來。

And the second appears in chapter three after Monkey is dragged to hell. He bullies underworld officials into giving him his ledger of life and death, in which he learns his exact age and fate:

You see, though this monkey resembled a human being [i.e. his body], he was not listed under the names of men; though he resembled the short-haired creatures [i.e. his fur], he did not dwell in their kingdoms; though he resembled other animals, he was not subject to the unicorn; and though he resembled flying creatures [i.e. his beak-like, protruding face], he was not governed by the phoenix. He had, therefore, a separate ledger, which Wukong examined himself. Under the heading “Soul1350” he found the name Sun Wukong recorded, with the description: “Heaven-born Stone Monkey. Age: three hundred and forty-two years. A good end” (emphasis added) (Wu & Yu, 2012, p. 140).

又看到猴屬之類，原來這猴似人相，不入人名；似臝蟲，不居國界；似走獸，不伏麒麟管；似飛禽，不受鳳凰轄。另有個簿子，悟空親自檢閱，直到那「魂」字一千三百五十號上，方注著孫悟空名字，乃「天產石猴，該壽三百四十二歲，善終」。

So why then was he able to live so long?

I. Religious background

The answer lies in the concept of “pre-allotted lifespans” (ming, 命; a.k.a. “fate”) (fig. 1), which can be traced to weft texts [1] and Grand Purity (Taiqing, 太清) scriptures of the Han dynasty (3rd-c. BCE to 3rd-c. CE). According to 1st to 3rd-century CE commentators, a person’s lifespan and good or bad fortune in life were determined according to whatever combination of “heavenly pneumas” (tianqi, 天氣) and “astral essences” (xingjing, 星精) that they were born under, meaning one’s fate was not handpicked by heaven (Campany, 2005, pp. 131-134). This allotted lifespan was not set in stone, however, for it was subject to subtractions and additions based on one’s bad or good deeds. The deity in charge of this tally system was called the “Director of Allotted Life Spans” (Siming, 司命), and, unlike the underworld officials who provided Monkey with his ledger, he was said to reside in heaven where he regularly received reports on individual human sins by the tutelary Stove god (Zaoshen, 竈神) on the first, fifteenth, and last day of every month. Additionally, he received reports from the three corpses/worms (sanshi, 三尸) inhabiting a person’s body. [2] The more a person sinned, the more points (time) was subtracted, anywhere from almost a year for major offences to just three days for minor offences. Doing good deeds or cheating the system were the only ways to live out the entirety of the allotted lifespan (Campany & Ge, 2002, pp. 47-52).

Evolution of the character ming (命) (larger version). Image found here.

Ways of “living off the books” included magically disguising clothing or a sword as a body (fig. 2), ritually bribing the gods of life and death with a golden statue to be used as a substitute body, or inserting a fake death certificate into the coffin of a recently deceased grandfather. These methods essentially tricked heaven into thinking that the person had died (Campany, 2005, pp. 134-138; Campany & Ge, 2002, pp. 60). The use of longevity-bestowing elixirs was considered the only true way of breaking free of the allotted lifespan and achieving immortality. Interestingly, the Han-era Scripture on the Elixirs of the Nine Tripods (Jiuding danjing, 九鼎丹經) describes how taking a fired concoction of cinnabar, vinegar, and lacquer for a thousand days straight would result in the “Director of Allotted Life Spans expung[ing] your name from the registers of death, so that you will end only when Heaven and Earth do” (Campany & Ge, 2002, pp. 52).

Fig. 2 – A type of Chinese jian (劍) sword that might be magically disguised to look like a decoy body (larger version). Image found here.

Therefore, we can see that Wukong’s allotted lifespan was 342 years and his birth fell under fortunate cosmic circumstances, for he was born onto an island paradise, served as the king of monkeys, and was destined to have a “good end” (shan zhong, 善終). Monkey had already achieved immortality via Daoist practices prior to being dragged to hell, so he had no need for cheating the system in order to live out the rest of his allotted lifespan. Nor did he need to take an elixir. He was simply so powerful that he could strike his name from the ledgers by force, thereby freeing himself from heaven’s control.

As for the significance of 342, Irwen Wong over at the Journey to the West Library blog has pointed out to me that the numbers add up to nine (3+4+2 = 9), which is an important digit in religious numerology. However, he also suggests that 342 could just be a random number chosen by the author-compiler.

Update: 10-15-24

I was reminded that the max level in the hit video game Black Myth: Wukong (2024) is 342, an obvious reference to Monkey’s lifespan.

Update: 10-26-24

Someone on reddit disagreed with me regarding allotted lifespans. Instead, they suggested that Sun Wukong somehow naturally performs the Daoist breathing exercises that would eventually lead to his immortality, as in he lengthened his life via cultivation practices just like Monkey deduces the 270-year-old Buddhist abbot, “Elder of the Golden Pool” (Jinchi changlao, 金池長老), did in chapter 17 (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 356). But this explanation ignores two elements from the novel. One, as mentioned above, the Great Sage’s allotted lifespan of 342 years is clearly recorded in the ledgers of life and death. This is beyond dispute. And two, the book presents cultivated longevity as a crime against heaven. For example, when Sun achieves immortality, the Patriarch Subodhi gives him a warning:

“What you have learned,” said the Patriarch, “is no ordinary magic: you have stolen the creative powers of Heaven and Earth and invaded the dark mysteries of the sun and moon. Your success in perfecting the elixir is something that the gods and the demons cannot countenance. Though your appearance will be preserved and your age lengthened, [heaven will send the three calamities to destroy you]” (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 121).

祖師道：「此乃非常之道：奪天地之造化，侵日月之玄機；丹成之後，鬼神難容。雖駐顏益壽，但到了五百年後，天降雷災打你，須要見性明心，預先躲避。躲得過，壽與天齊；躲不過，就此絕命。再五百年後，天降火災燒你。這火不是天火，亦不是凡火，喚做『陰火』。自本身湧泉穴下燒起，直透泥垣宮，五臟成灰，四肢皆朽，把千年苦行，俱為虛幻。再五百年，又降風災吹你。這風不是東南西北風，不是和薰金朔風，亦不是花柳松竹風，喚做『贔風』。自顖門中吹入六腑，過丹田，穿九竅，骨肉消疏，其身自解。所以都要躲過。」

The aforementioned calamities are elemental attacks of divine lightening, fire, and wind that are respectively sent every 500 years to kill cultivators for defying their fated age and attaining immortality (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, pp. 121-122).

This negative view of immortality also extends to the cultivation practices that produce it. Campany (1985) explains that demons are evil in the novel because they try to bypass the natural cosmic hierarchy by using spiritual practices to encapsulate the universe within themselves, while the pilgrims follow the “correct” path by submitting to Buddhism and building Buddhist merit in place of the selfish quest for immortality (pp. 112-113). This is perfectly summed up by the Great Sage’s story trajectory. He was considered a monster until he reformed and became Tripitaka’s disciple.

Having said that, I would like to return to the Golden Pool Elder. It’s important to remember that he learned his life-prolonging techniques from a nearby spirit, and that he was, as Monkey puts it, also a member of the fiend’s “monster’s gang” (yaojing jiedang, 妖精結黨) (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 356). And when you take into account his willingness to set his own monastery on fire just to murder Tripitaka and attain the monk’s heaven-sent robe (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 1, p. 340), the abbot is just as much of a devil as those he congregated with. Therefore, his cultivation falls into the same category as demons, making him an ill-suited example to use.

Notes:

1) The term “Weft texts” draws on a weaving analogy to refer to side texts that compliment or complete existing material.

2) The ancient Chinese believed that the body was inhabited by upwards of ten souls, namely three hun (魂) and seven po (魄) souls. In addition, the body was inhabited by three demonic parasites, the three corpses/worms (sanshi, 三尸), who wanted nothing more than to be rid of their mortal confinement so they’d be free to wander and eat sacrificial offerings left for ghosts. Therefore, they would report the sins of their human vessel to heaven in order to hasten their demise (Campany & Ge, 2002, p. 49, for example).

Monkey’s own three corpses/worms are referenced in chapter 32 when a demon magically calls forth a mountain that crushes our hero:

Exerting his spirit even more, he [the monster] recited another spell and sent up the Tai Mountain to press down on Pilgrim’s head. With this magic of the Tai Mountain Pressing the Head, the Great Sage was overpowered as his strength ebbed and his tendons turned numb; the weight was so great that the spirits of the Three Worms inside his body exploded and blood spouted from his seven apertures [i.e. his eyes, ears, nostrils, and mouth] (Wu & Yu, 2012, vol. 2, pp. 108-109).

又整性情，把真言念動，將一座泰山遣在空中，劈頭壓住行者。那大聖力軟觔麻，遭逢他這泰山下頂之法，只壓得三尸神咋，七竅噴紅。

Sources:

Campany, R. F. (1985). Demons, Gods, and Pilgrims: The Demonology of the Hsi-yu Chi. Chinese Literature: Essays, Articles, Reviews (CLEAR), 7(1/2), 95-115. doi:10.2307/495195

Campany, R. F., & Ge, H. (2002). To Live as Long as Heaven and Earth: A Translation and Study of Ge Hong’s Traditions of Divine Transcendents. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Campany, R. F. (2005). Living off the Books: Fifty Ways to Dodge Ming in Early Medieval China. In C. Lupke (Ed.), The Magnitude of Ming: Command, Allotment, and Fate in Chinese Culture (pp. 129-150), University of Hawaii Press.

Wu, C., & Yu, A. C. (2012). The Journey to the West (Vols. 1-4) (Rev. ed.). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press.

A Possible Origin for the Term “Handsome Monkey King”

Jim R. McClanahan 2 Comments

I normally don’t post tone marks for Chinese words, but I will include them here since they are important to the subject of this article.

Měihóu wáng (美猴王), or the “Handsome Monkey King,” is one of Sūn Wùkōng‘s many names and titles. I recently saw an online post where someone proposed their own folk analysis for the character měi (美, “beautiful/handsome”), suggesting that the two prongs on top reference Monkey’s iconic feathered cap. But others quickly pointed out that this was historically not the case. This reminded me of my theory on the origins of the term Měihóu wáng.

(Left) The character měi (美, “beautiful/handsome”) (larger version). Take note of the two prongs on top. Image found here. (Right) Èrláng vs Sūn Wùkōng (larger version). Take note of Monkey’s feathered cap. Image of a production still from the 1986 TV Series.

I have suggested in an update to a past article that the title is a play on Míhóu wáng (獼猴王, “Macaque/Monkey King”), míhóu being a common term for monkeys for centuries. [1] This is because the 13th-century version of Journey to the West (Xīyóu jì, 西遊記, 1592) calls Sūn Wùkōng‘s antecedent Míhóu wáng. [2] Even a 3rd-century Chinese version of an Indian jataka tale where the Buddha is a monkey king calls him Míhóu wáng. But most importantly, the Middle Chinese pronunciation of měi (美) sounds more like “mǐ” (mijX), as do the pronunciations of many ethnic groups and even neighboring countries. This might suggest that the pre-modern usage was adopted by these people and places in the past. Therefore, Míhóu wáng and Měihóu wáng may have sounded similar at some point in history:

Modern Chinese → Middle Chinese

獼猴王 (Míhóu wáng) → Míhóu wáng (mjie-huw hjwang) [3]

美猴王 (Měihóu wáng) → Mǐhóu wáng (mijX huw hjwang) [4] 

Ethnic and foreign pronunciations of měi (美)

If true, this would mean that the common link between Sūn Wùkōng‘s title and his ego is a later interpretation.

I must point out, however, that I am NOT a language expert. This is just something that dawned on me one day. I would like feedback from more knowledgeable readers. Please write me via the “contact” button on the menu, or leave a comment below.

The Handsome Monkey King is waited on by his children (larger version). Image from the Japanese children’s book Son Goku (孫悟空,1939).

Notes:

1) Míhóu is one of various transcriptions for a word of non-Chinese origin used in ancient China to mean “monkey”:

The fact that mu occurs in four variants: 母 and 沐 in Chou literature, and mi 米 or 獼 during the Han dynasty and later, proves that this binom is a phonetic rendering of a non-Chinese term (Van Gulik, 1967, p. 35).

2) The full title is the “Bronze-Headed, Iron-Browed King of the Eighty-Four Thousand Monkeys of the Purple Cloud Grotto on the Mountain of Flowers and Fruit” (Huāguǒ shān Zǐyún dòng bāwàn sìqiān tóngtóu tiě’é Míhóu wáng, 花果山紫雲洞八萬四千銅頭鐵額獼猴王) (Wivell, 1994, p. 1182).

3) See Kroll et al. (2015, pp. 162, 302, and 469).

4) See Kroll et al. (2015, pp. 162, 299, and 469).

Source:

Kroll, P. W., Baxter, W., Boltz, W. G., Knechtges, D. R., Lien, Y. E., Richter, A., Richter, M. L., Warner, D. X. (2015). A Student’s Dictionary of Classical and Medieval Chinese. Belgium: Brill.

Van Gulik, R. H. (1967). The Gibbon in China: An Essay in Chinese Animal Lore. Leiden: E.J. Brill.

Wivell, C.S. (1994). The Story of How the Monk Tripitaka of the Great Country of T’ang Brought Back the Sūtras. In V. Mair (Ed.), The Columbia Anthology of Traditional Chinese Literature (pp. 1181-1207). New York: Columbia University Press.

Sun Wukong Dough Figurines from Quanzhou, Fujian, China

Jim R. McClanahan Leave a comment

Last updated: 10-12-2024

My blog currently hosts several articles related to Fujian Province, China, including Sun Wukong’s cult, some of his mainland temples, a 13th-century pagoda relief carving, and a rare Yuan-Ming Journey to the West (Xiyouji, 西遊記) puppet play entitled Tripitaka Seeks the Scriptures (Sanzang Qujing, 三藏取經). Here, I would like to add to the list by shining a spotlight on the traditional “decorated dough figurines” (zhuanggao ren, 粧糕人) of Maan Uiling (Wan Weilong, 萬偉龍; Insta: @maanuiling) from Quanzhou City.

This article will serve as a very basic introduction to dough figurines. The artform of food-based dolls has many names across Asia, including niemian ren or liat bin/bian jin/lin (捏面/麵人) and niesu or liat sok/so (捏塑) in Chinese and Hokkien-speaking countries, amezaiku (飴細工) in Japan, and to he in Vietnam.

I will update this piece when new information becomes available.

1. Uiling’s Work

I first learned about Uiling’s art from a Facebook post (video 1). It features Sun Wukong in whimsical, brightly-colored scenes of combat and worship.

Video 1 – A video of Great Sage dough figurines.

1.1. Brief Interview

Uiling was kind enough to answer some questions:

1. I would really like to learn more about the history and uses of decorated dough figurines. Are they related to religion?

The figurines are only available during the Yulanpen [i.e. Hungry Ghost] Festival in the seventh month of the lunar calendar. They are used to ward off evil spirits. In my seaside hometown of Quanzhou, Fujian, adults buy them for children to play with in order to drive away evil spirits.

[…]

The most popular figure purchased by everyone during the seventh lunar month is Sun Wukong, and there’s also Nezha, Three-Eyed Yang Jian [i.e. Erlang, 二郎], the Pagoda-Bearing Heavenly King [i.e. Li Jing, 李靖], Mother Guanyin, Lord Guan, Tripitaka riding the white horse, Mu Guiying, He Xiangu, and Iron Crutch Li bearing a hu-gourd.

你好，粧糕人是农历七月盂兰盆节才有的东西。用来镇邪。我的家乡在海边福建泉州，大人买来给小孩子拿在手上玩，驱逐鬼恶。

[…]

七月的时候大家买的比较多的是孙悟空，还有哪吒、三目杨戬、托塔天王、观音妈、关公、三藏骑白马、穆桂英、何仙姑、铁拐李有一粒葫芦。

(The demonifugic properties of the figurines no doubt explain why Sun Wukong is a popular subject of dough figurine makers. He is after all the demon queller par excellence.)

2. Can you tell me how you started making decorated dough figurines? Is this a family tradition? And can you walk me through the process? What materials do you use, and how long does it take to make the figurines?

The materials are wheat flour, glutinous rice flour, salt, honey, etc. It takes five hours to make one. I have enjoyed this since I was a child and have learned from people everywhere. I want to produce items that suit how I feel in my soul. I have written a book titled Quanzhou Clay Toys.

材料是面粉糯米粉盐蜂蜜等。制作目前是五个小时。我从小就喜欢这个，到处跟人学。我想做出适合我灵魂的感觉。我有写一本书《泉州土怂玩具》。

Those wishing to purchase his creations should download the REDnote (小红书) app. Then, search “泉郡粧糕宫.” If this doesn’t work, you can reach out to the artist on Facebook. Again, search “泉郡粧糕宫.”

1.2. Style Influences

Uiling’s version of Sun Wukong features long hair, something that may seem unique to the laymen (fig. 1).

Fig. 1 – Uiling’s version of the Monkey King (larger version). Screenshot from this Instagram video.

But this can be tied to his depiction in Fujian glove puppetry (fig. 1) and folk religion (fig. 2).

Fig. 1 (left) – A (porcelain or wood) Quanzhou glove puppet Monkey King head (larger version). Photo found here. Fig. 2 (right) – A Fujian Great Sage statue in my personal collection (larger version).

And these in turn are modeled on long-haired military monks (wuseng, 武僧) from Chinese opera (fig. 3).

Fig. 2 – A detail of the literary hero and military monk Wu Song from a Chinese opera about his adventures (larger version). Full version available on Wikimedia Commons.

2. Folk History

Several online articles link dough figurines to the origins of mantou pastries. Thankfully, I was able to find a dynastic source mentioning the legend. [1] The Song-era Records on the Origins of Things and Affairs (Shiwu jiyuan, 事物紀原, c. 11th-century) contains an entry reading:

Steamed Buns [Mantou, 饅頭]

The novel says: In the past, when Martial Marquis Zhuge [Zhuge wuhou, 諸葛武侯; i.e. Zhuge Liang, 諸葛亮] was leading an expedition to capture Meng [孟; i.e. Meng Hou, 孟获], people said that the land of the Man-barbarians [蠻] was permeated with sorcery. So, he had to pray to the gods in order to procure spirit-soldiers to help him. But the local custom involved killing sacrificial victims before the gods would send troops. However, the Martial Marquis refused, choosing instead to wrap mutton and pork in rice dough and shape them like human heads [rentou, 人頭]. After this “sacrifice,” the gods sent the soldiers.

From then on, later generations called these “steamed buns” [mantou, 饅頭; i.e. a homonym of “Man-barbarian heads”]. In Lu Di’s (Miscellaneous) Methods of Sacrifice [(Za) Ji fa, (雜)祭法] of the Jin Dynasty, steamed buns were used during the spring sacrifice as items offered to the gods. And Xu Shi’s “Rhapsody on Pasta” [Bing fu, 餅賦] also mentions this, so it’s suspected that steamed buns originated from the Martial Marquis.

饅頭

小說雲：昔諸葛武侯之徵孟獲也，人曰：蠻地多邪術，須禱於神，假陰兵一以助之。然蠻俗必殺人，以其首祭之，神則向之，為出兵也。武侯不從，因雜用羊豕之肉以包之，以面像人頭以祠，神亦向焉，而為出兵。後人由此為饅頭。至晉盧諦《祭法》春祠用饅頭，始列於祭祀之品，而束晢《餅賦》亦有其說，則饅頭疑自武侯始也。

It’s easy to see how this story was associated with our subject. Both the steamed buns and and figurines are humanoid representations that are shaped from rice dough. And both serve a religious function.

I hope to write more about this fascinating artform in the future.

Update: 10-12-24

Dr. Robin Ruizendaal, a noted scholar of traditional Chinese puppetry, recently posted a colorized photo of a dough figurine maker from the mid-20th century (fig. 3). His original description reads:

1940年代四川成都龍泉驛區賣捏麵人演偶戲
Dough puppet maker and vendor brings his merchandise to life on a small stage in Chengdu, Sichuan province (1940s).

The maker appears to be using his figurines as puppets to entertain/entice the young lads to buy some of his wares.

Fig. 3 – The dough maker and crowd (larger version).

Notes:

1) I learned about said source from Ma (2019, p. 981). However, I am not following their translation of the passage because it is different from the version I have.

Source:

Ma, B. (2019). History Of Medicine In Chinese Culture (Vols. 1-2). Singapore: World Scientific Publishing.